Journal articles
Harris D, North J, Runswick O (In Press). A Bayesian computational model to investigate expert anticipation of a seemingly unpredictable ball bounce. Psychological Research
Harris D, Bird J, Smart P, Wilson M, Vine S (In Press). A framework for the testing and validation of simulated environments in experimentation and training. Frontiers in Psychology
Harris D, Arthur T, Broadbent D, Wilson M, Vine S, Runswick O (In Press). An active inference account of skilled anticipation in sport: Using computational models to
formalise theory and generate new hypotheses.
Sports MedicineAbstract:
An active inference account of skilled anticipation in sport: Using computational models to
formalise theory and generate new hypotheses
Optimal performance in time-constrained and dynamically changing environments depends on
making reliable predictions about future outcomes. In sporting tasks, performers have been found
to employ multiple information sources to maximize the accuracy of their predictions, but
questions remain about how different information sources are weighted and integrated to guide
anticipation. In this paper, we outline how predictive processing approaches, and active inference
in particular, provide a unifying account of perception and action which explains many of the
prominent findings in the sports anticipation literature. Active inference proposes that perception
and action are underpinned by the organisms’ need to remain within certain stable states. To this
end, decision making approximates Bayesian inference and actions are used to minimise future
prediction errors during brain-body-environment interactions. Using a series of Bayesian
neurocomputational models based on a partially observable Markov process, we demonstrate that
key findings from the literature can be recreated from the first principles of active inference. In
doing so, we formulate a number of novel and empirically falsifiable hypotheses about human
anticipation capabilities which could guide future investigations in the field
Abstract.
Harris D, Wilson M, Jones M, de Burgh T, Mundy D, Arthur T, Olonilua M, Vine S (In Press). An investigation of feed-forward and feed-back eye movement training in immersive virtual reality. Journal of Eye Movement Research
Harris D, Arthur T, de Burgh T, Duxbury M, Lockett-Kirk R, McBarnett W, Vine S (In Press). Assessing expertise using eye tracking in a Virtual Reality flight simulation. The International Journal of Aerospace Psychology
Harris D, Wilson M, Vine S, Arthur T, Brock K (In Press). Can cognitive training capitalise on near transfer effects? No evidence of transfer following online inhibition training in a randomised-controlled trial.
PLoS ONEAbstract:
Can cognitive training capitalise on near transfer effects? No evidence of transfer following online inhibition training in a randomised-controlled trial
Despite early promise, cognitive training research has failed to deliver consistent real-world benefits and questions have been raised about the experimental rigour of many studies. Several meta-analyses have suggested that there is little to no evidence for transfer of training from computerised tasks to real-world skills. More targeted training approaches that aim to optimise performance on specific tasks have, however, shown more promising effects. In particular, the use of inhibition training for improving shoot/don’t-shoot decision-making has returned positive far transfer effects. In the present work, we tested whether an online inhibition training task could generate near and mid-transfer effects in the context of response inhibition tasks. As there has been relatively little testing of retention effects in the literature to date, we also examined whether any benefits would persist over a 1-month interval. In a pre-registered, randomised-controlled trial, participants (n=73) were allocated to either an inhibition training programme (six training sessions of a visual search task with singleton distractor) or a closely matched active control task (that omitted the distractor element). We assessed near transfer to a Flanker task, and mid-transfer to a computerised shoot/don’t-shoot task. There was evidence for a near transfer effect, but no evidence for mid-transfer. There was also no evidence that the magnitude of training improvement was related to transfer task performance. This finding adds to the growing body of literature questioning the effectiveness of cognitive training. Given previous positive findings, however, there may still be value in continuing to explore the extent to which cognitive training can capitalise on near or mid-transfer effects for performance optimisation.
Abstract.
Harris D, Wilson M, Vine S (In Press). Development and validation of a simulation workload measure: the simulation task load index (SIM-TLX). Virtual Reality
Harris D, Buckingham G, Wilson M, Brookes J, Mushtaq F, Mon-Williams M, Vine S (In Press). Exploring sensorimotor performance and user experience within a virtual reality golf putting simulator. Virtual Reality
Harris D, Wilkinson S, Ellmers T (In Press). From fear of falling to choking under pressure: a predictive processing perspective of disrupted motor control under anxiety. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
Allen K, Harris D, Arthur T, Wood G, Buckingham G, Allen K (In Press). Investigating how Prior Knowledge Influences Perception and Action in Developmental Coordination Disorder. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology
Brock K, Vine S, Harris D (In Press). Movement kinematic and postural control differences when performing a visuomotor skill in real and virtual environments. Experimental Brain Research
Harris D, Arthur T (In Press). Predictive eye movements are adjusted in a Bayes-optimal fashion in response to unexpectedly changing environmental probabilities. Cortex
Harris D, Arthur T, Vine S, Wilson M (In Press). The effect of performance pressure and error-feedback on anxiety and performance in an interceptive task. Frontiers in Psychology
Harris D, Wilson M, Vine S (In Press). The functional role of visual information and fixation stillness in the quiet eye.
PLoS ONEAbstract:
The functional role of visual information and fixation stillness in the quiet eye
The final fixation to a target in far-aiming tasks, known as the quiet eye, has been consistently identified as an important perceptual-cognitive variable for task execution. Yet, despite a number of proposed mechanisms it remains unclear whether the fixation itself is driving performance effects or is simply an emergent property of underpinning cognitions. Across two pre-registered studies, novice golfers (n = 127) completed a series of golf putts in a virtual reality simulation to examine the function of the quiet eye in the absence of visual information. In experiment 1 participants maintained a quiet eye fixation even when all visual information was occluded. Visual occlusion did significantly disrupt motor skill accuracy, but the effect was relatively small (89cm vs 105cm radial error, std. beta = 0.25). In experiment 2, a ‘noisy eye’ was induced using covertly moving fixation points, which disrupted skill execution (p =. 04, BF = 318.07, std. beta = -0.25) even though visual input was equivalent across conditions. Overall, the results showed that performers persist with a long pre-shot fixation even in the absence of visual information, and that the stillness of this fixation confers a functional benefit that is not merely related to improved information extraction.
Abstract.
Farris DJ, Harris DJ, Rice HM, Campbell J, Weare A, Risius D, Armstrong N, Rayson MP (2023). A systematic literature review of evidence for the use of assistive exoskeletons in defence and security use cases.
Ergonomics,
66(1), 61-87.
Abstract:
A systematic literature review of evidence for the use of assistive exoskeletons in defence and security use cases.
Advances in assistive exoskeleton technology, and a boom in related scientific literature, prompted a need to review the potential use of exoskeletons in defence and security. A systematic review examined the evidence for successful augmentation of human performance in activities deemed most relevant to military tasks. Categories of activities were determined a priori through literature scoping and Human Factors workshops with military stakeholders. Workshops identified promising opportunities and risks for integration of exoskeletons into military use cases. The review revealed promising evidence for exoskeletons' capacity to assist with load carriage, manual lifting, and working with tools. However, the review also revealed significant gaps in exoskeleton capabilities and likely performance levels required in the use case scenarios. Consequently, it was recommended that a future roadmap for introducing exoskeletons to military environments requires development of performance criteria for exoskeletons that can be used to implement a human-centred approach to research and development.
Abstract.
Author URL.
Arthur T, Loveland-Perkins T, Williams C, Harris D, Wilson M, de Burgh T, Dhanda J, Vine S (2023). Examining the validity and fidelity of a virtual reality simulator for basic life support training. BMC Digital Health, 1(1).
Harris DJ, Arthur T, Kearse J, Olonilua M, Hassan EK, De Burgh TC, Wilson MR, Vine SJ (2023). Exploring the role of virtual reality in military decision training. Frontiers in Virtual Reality, 4
Arthur T, Brosnan M, Harris D, Buckingham G, Wilson M, Williams G, Vine S (2023). Investigating how Explicit Contextual Cues Affect Predictive Sensorimotor Control in Autistic Adults.
J Autism Dev Disord,
53(11), 4368-4381.
Abstract:
Investigating how Explicit Contextual Cues Affect Predictive Sensorimotor Control in Autistic Adults.
Research suggests that sensorimotor difficulties in autism could be reduced by providing individuals with explicit contextual information. To test this, we examined autistic visuomotor control during a virtual racquetball task, in which participants hit normal and unexpectedly-bouncy balls using a handheld controller. The probability of facing each type of ball was varied unpredictably over time. However, during cued trials, participants received explicit information about the likelihood of facing each uncertain outcome. When compared to neurotypical controls, autistic individuals displayed poorer task performance, atypical gaze profiles, and more restricted swing kinematics. These visuomotor patterns were not significantly affected by contextual cues, indicating that autistic people exhibit underlying differences in how prior information and environmental uncertainty are dynamically modulated during movement tasks.
Abstract.
Author URL.
Arthur T, Vine S, Buckingham G, Brosnan M, Wilson M, Harris D (2023). Testing predictive coding theories of autism spectrum disorder using models of active inference.
PLoS Comput Biol,
19(9).
Abstract:
Testing predictive coding theories of autism spectrum disorder using models of active inference.
Several competing neuro-computational theories of autism have emerged from predictive coding models of the brain. To disentangle their subtly different predictions about the nature of atypicalities in autistic perception, we performed computational modelling of two sensorimotor tasks: the predictive use of manual gripping forces during object lifting and anticipatory eye movements during a naturalistic interception task. In contrast to some accounts, we found no evidence of chronic atypicalities in the use of priors or weighting of sensory information during object lifting. Differences in prior beliefs, rates of belief updating, and the precision weighting of prediction errors were, however, observed for anticipatory eye movements. Most notably, we observed autism-related difficulties in flexibly adapting learning rates in response to environmental change (i.e. volatility). These findings suggest that atypical encoding of precision and context-sensitive adjustments provide a better explanation of autistic perception than generic attenuation of priors or persistently high precision prediction errors. Our results did not, however, support previous suggestions that autistic people perceive their environment to be persistently volatile.
Abstract.
Author URL.
Harris D, Vine S, Wilson M, Arthur T (2023). The Relationship Between Environmental Statistics and Predictive Gaze Behaviour During a Manual Interception Task: Eye Movements as Active Inference.
Computational Brain & BehaviorAbstract:
The Relationship Between Environmental Statistics and Predictive Gaze Behaviour During a Manual Interception Task: Eye Movements as Active Inference
AbstractHuman observers are known to frequently act like Bayes-optimal decision-makers. Growing evidence indicates that the deployment of the visual system may similarly be driven by probabilistic mental models of the environment. We tested whether eye movements during a dynamic interception task were indeed optimised according to Bayesian inference principles. Forty-one participants intercepted oncoming balls in a virtual reality racquetball task across five counterbalanced conditions in which the relative probability of the ball’s onset location was manipulated. Analysis of pre-onset gaze positions indicated that eye position tracked the true distribution of onset location, suggesting that the gaze system spontaneously adhered to environmental statistics. Eye movements did not, however, seek to minimise the distance between the target and foveal vision according to an optimal probabilistic model of the world and instead often reflected a ‘best guess’ about onset location. Trial-to-trial changes in gaze position were, however, found to be better explained by Bayesian learning models (hierarchical Gaussian filter) than associative learning models. Additionally, parameters relating to the precision of beliefs and prediction errors extracted from the participant-wise models were related to both task-evoked pupil dilations and variability in gaze positions, providing further evidence that probabilistic context was reflected in spontaneous gaze dynamics.
Abstract.
Bird JM, Smart PA, Harris DJ, Phillips LA, Giannachi G, Vine SJ (2022). A Magic Leap in Tourism: Intended and Realized Experience of Head-Mounted Augmented Reality in a Museum Context. Journal of Travel Research
Słowiński P, Grindley B, Muncie H, Harris DJ, Vine SJ, Wilson MR (2022). Assessment of cognitive biases in Augmented Reality: Beyond eye tracking.
Journal of eye movement research,
15(3).
Abstract:
Assessment of cognitive biases in Augmented Reality: Beyond eye tracking.
We study an individual's propensity for rational thinking; the avoidance of cognitive biases (unconscious errors generated by our mental simplification methods) using a novel augmented reality (AR) platform. Specifically, we developed an odd-one-out (OOO) game-like task in AR designed to try to induce and assess confirmatory biases. Forty students completed the AR task in the laboratory, and the short form of the comprehensive assessment of rational thinking (CART) online via the Qualtrics platform. We demonstrate that behavioural markers (based on eye, hand and head movements) can be associated (linear regression) with the short CART score - more rational thinkers have slower head and hand movements and faster gaze movements in the second more ambiguous round of the OOO task. Furthermore, short CART scores can be associated with the change in behaviour between two rounds of the OOO task (one less and one more ambiguous) - hand-eye-head coordination patterns of the more rational thinkers are more consistent in the two rounds. Overall, we demonstrate the benefits of augmenting eye-tracking recordings with additional data modalities when trying to understand complicated behaviours.
Abstract.
Słowiński PM, Grindley B, Muncie H, Harris D, Vine SJ, Wilson M (2022). Assessment of cognitive biases in Augmented Reality: Beyond eye tracking.
Abstract:
Assessment of cognitive biases in Augmented Reality: Beyond eye tracking.
We study an individual’s propensity for rational thinking; the avoidance of cognitive biases (unconscious errors generated by our mental simplification methods) using a novel augmented reality (AR) platform. Specifically, we developed an odd-one-out game-like task in AR designed to try to induce and assess confirmatory biases. Forty students completed the AR task in the laboratory, and the short form of the comprehensive assessment of rational thinking (CART) online via the Qualtrics platform. We used distance correlation approaches and stepwise regression to identify objective markers (based on eye, hand and head movements) associated with the psychometric measures of propensity for rational thinking. We show that the proposed markers are associated with the short CART score – more rational thinkers have slower head and hand movements, faster gaze movements and more consistent hand-eye-head coordination patterns across conditions.
Abstract.
Discombe RM, Bird JM, Kelly A, Blake RL, Harris DJ, Vine SJ (2022). Effects of traditional and immersive video on anticipation in cricket: a temporal occlusion study. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 58, 102088-102088.
Harris DJ, Arthur T, Vine SJ, Liu J, Abd Rahman HR, Han F, Wilson MR (2022). Task-evoked pupillary responses track precision-weighted prediction errors and learning rate during interceptive visuomotor actions.
Scientific Reports,
12(1).
Abstract:
Task-evoked pupillary responses track precision-weighted prediction errors and learning rate during interceptive visuomotor actions
AbstractIn this study, we examined the relationship between physiological encoding of surprise and the learning of anticipatory eye movements. Active inference portrays perception and action as interconnected inference processes, driven by the imperative to minimise the surprise of sensory observations. To examine this characterisation of oculomotor learning during a hand–eye coordination task, we tested whether anticipatory eye movements were updated in accordance with Bayesian principles and whether trial-by-trial learning rates tracked pupil dilation as a marker of ‘surprise’. Forty-four participants completed an interception task in immersive virtual reality that required them to hit bouncing balls that had either expected or unexpected bounce profiles. We recorded anticipatory eye movements known to index participants’ beliefs about likely ball bounce trajectories. By fitting a hierarchical Bayesian inference model to the trial-wise trajectories of these predictive eye movements, we were able to estimate each individual’s expectations about bounce trajectories, rates of belief updating, and precision-weighted prediction errors. We found that the task-evoked pupil response tracked prediction errors and learning rates but not beliefs about ball bounciness or environmental volatility. These findings are partially consistent with active inference accounts and shed light on how encoding of surprise may shape the control of action.
Abstract.
Chinzara TT, Buckingham G, Harris DJ (2022). Transcranial direct current stimulation and sporting performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis of transcranial direct current stimulation effects on physical endurance, muscular strength and visuomotor skills.
Eur J Neurosci,
55(2), 468-486.
Abstract:
Transcranial direct current stimulation and sporting performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis of transcranial direct current stimulation effects on physical endurance, muscular strength and visuomotor skills.
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive brain stimulation technique that has been linked with a range of physiological and cognitive enhancements relevant to sporting performance. As a number of positive and null findings have been reported in the literature, the present meta-analysis sought to synthesise results across endurance, strength and visuomotor skill domains to investigate if tDCS improves any aspect of sporting performance. Online database searches in August 2020 identified 43 full-text studies which examined the acute effects of tDCS compared to sham/control conditions on physical endurance, muscular strength, and visuomotor skills in healthy adults. Meta-analysis indicated a small overall effect favouring tDCS stimulation over sham/control (standardized mean difference (SMD) = 0.25, CI95%[.14;.36]). Effects on strength (SMD = 0.31, CI95%[.10;.51]) and visuomotor (SMD = 0.29, CI95%[.00;.57]) tasks were larger than endurance performance (SMD = 0.18, CI95%[.00;.37]). Meta-regressions indicated effect sizes were not related to stimulation parameters, but other factors such as genetics, gender, and experience may modulate tDCS effects. The results suggest tDCS has the potential to be used as an ergogenic aid in conjunction with a specified training regime.
Abstract.
Author URL.
Harris DJ, Allen KL, Vine SJ, Wilson MR (2021). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the relationship between flow states and performance.
International Review of Sport and Exercise PsychologyAbstract:
A systematic review and meta-analysis of the relationship between flow states and performance
Flow is an optimal experience that has received particular interest within sport because of a possible relationship with enhanced athletic performances. Yet, the strength and direction of the putative flow–performance relationship remain unclear. Consequently, a PRISMA guided systematic review was conducted in May 2020 to examine the empirical evidence for a flow–performance relationship, to examine potential mechanisms, and to assess the quality of current evidence. Peer-reviewed articles that examined the relationship between flow and performance in sport or computer gaming tasks were searched for using five online databases. The results were collated into a narrative synthesis and a meta-analysis. Twenty articles met the inclusion criteria, featuring 22 studies that were appropriate for meta-analysis. The overall quality of the studies was fairly good, with a mean quality assessment score of 76.5% (SD = 9.7). The pooled effect size (r = 0.31, 95% CI [0.24; 0.38]) indicated that across a range of sport and gaming tasks there was a medium-sized flow–performance relationship. However, current evidence is unable to determine the causal direction of this relationship or the mechanisms that mediate it. A number of conceptual and methodological challenges facing the study of flow are discussed and recommendations for future work are outlined.
Abstract.
Arthur T, Harris D, Buckingham G, Brosnan M, Wilson M, Williams G, Vine S (2021). An examination of active inference in autistic adults using immersive virtual reality.
Sci Rep,
11(1).
Abstract:
An examination of active inference in autistic adults using immersive virtual reality.
The integration of prior expectations, sensory information, and environmental volatility is proposed to be atypical in Autism Spectrum Disorder, yet few studies have tested these predictive processes in active movement tasks. To address this gap in the research, we used an immersive virtual-reality racquetball paradigm to explore how visual sampling behaviours and movement kinematics are adjusted in relation to unexpected, uncertain, and volatile changes in environmental statistics. We found that prior expectations concerning ball 'bounciness' affected sensorimotor control in both autistic and neurotypical participants, with all individuals using prediction-driven gaze strategies to track the virtual ball. However, autistic participants showed substantial differences in visuomotor behaviour when environmental conditions were more volatile. Specifically, uncertainty-related performance difficulties in these conditions were accompanied by atypical movement kinematics and visual sampling responses. Results support proposals that autistic people overestimate the volatility of sensory environments, and suggest that context-sensitive differences in active inference could explain a range of movement-related difficulties in autism.
Abstract.
Author URL.
Harris DJ, Hardcastle KJ, Wilson MR, Vine SJ (2021). Assessing the learning and transfer of gaze behaviours in immersive virtual reality.
Virtual Reality,
25(4), 961-973.
Abstract:
Assessing the learning and transfer of gaze behaviours in immersive virtual reality
Virtual reality (VR) has clear potential for improving simulation training in many industries. Yet, methods for testing the fidelity, validity and training efficacy of VR environments are, in general, lagging behind their adoption. There is limited understanding of how readily skills learned in VR will transfer, and what features of training design will facilitate effective transfer. Two potentially important elements are the psychological fidelity of the environment, and the stimulus correspondence with the transfer context. In this study, we examined the effectiveness of VR for training police room searching procedures, and assessed the corresponding development of perceptual-cognitive skill through eye-tracking indices of search efficiency. Participants (n = 54) were assigned to a VR rule-learning and search training task (FTG), a search only training task (SG) or a no-practice control group (CG). Both FTG and SG developed more efficient search behaviours during the training task, as indexed by increases in saccade size and reductions in search rate. The FTG performed marginally better than the CG on a novel VR transfer test, but no better than the SG. More efficient gaze behaviours learned during training were not, however, evident during the transfer test. These findings demonstrate how VR can be used to develop perceptual-cognitive skills, but also highlight the challenges of achieving transfer of training.
Abstract.
Harris DJ, Vine SJ, Eysenck MW, Wilson MR (2021). Psychological pressure and compounded errors during elite-level tennis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 56, 101987-101987.
Wood G, Wright DJ, Harris D, Pal A, Franklin ZC, Vine SJ (2021). Testing the construct validity of a soccer-specific virtual reality simulator using novice, academy, and professional soccer players.
VIRTUAL REALITY,
25(1), 43-51.
Author URL.
Mathew RK, Mushtaq F, Ahmed S, Ahmed K, Anderton LK, Arnab S, Awais M, Badger JR, Bajwa KS, Baraas RC, et al (2021). Three principles for the progress of immersive technologies in healthcare training and education. BMJ Simulation and Technology Enhanced Learning, 7(5), 459-460.
Chinzara TT, Buckingham G, Harris D (2021). Transcranial direct current stimulation and sporting performance: a systematic review and meta‐analysis of transcranial direct current stimulation effects on physical endurance, muscular strength and visuomotor skills.
Abstract:
Transcranial direct current stimulation and sporting performance: a systematic review and meta‐analysis of transcranial direct current stimulation effects on physical endurance, muscular strength and visuomotor skills
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive brain stimulation technique that has been linked with a range of physiological and cognitive enhancements relevant to sporting performance. As a number of positive and null findings have been reported in the literature, the present meta-analysis sought to synthesise results across endurance, strength and visuomotor skill domains to investigate if tDCS improves any aspect of sporting performance. Online database searches in August 2020 identified 43 full-text studies which examined the acute effects of tDCS compared to sham/control conditions on physical endurance, muscular strength and visuomotor skills in healthy adults. The quantitative analysis indicated a small overall effect favouring tDCS stimulation over sham/control (SMD=0.25, CI95%[0.14;0.36]). Effects on strength (SMD=0.31, CI95%[0.10;0.51]) and visuomotor (SMD=0.29, CI95%[0.00;0.57]) tasks were larger than endurance performance (SMD=0.18, CI95%[0.00;0.37]). Meta-regressions indicated effect sizes were not related to stimulation parameters, but genetics, gender, and experience may modulate tDCS effects. The results suggest tDCS has the potential to be used as an ergogenic aid in conjunction with a specified training regime.
Abstract.
Arthur T, Harris D, Allen K, Naylor C, Wood G, Vine S, Wilson M, Tsaneva-Atanasova K, Buckingham G (2021). Visuo-motor attention during object interaction in children with developmental coordination disorder.
CortexAbstract:
Visuo-motor attention during object interaction in children with developmental coordination disorder
Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) describes a condition of poor motor performance in the absence of intellectual impairment. Despite being one of the most prevalent developmental disorders, little is known about how fundamental visuomotor processes might function in this group. One prevalent idea is children with DCD interact with their environment in a less predictive fashion than typically developing children. A metric of prediction which has not been examined in this group is the degree to which the hands and eyes are coordinated when performing manual tasks. To this end, we examined hand and eye movements during an object lifting task in a group of children with DCD (n=19) and an age-matched group of children without DCD (n=39). We observed no differences between the groups in terms of how well they coordinated their hands and eyes when lifting objects, nor in terms of the degree by which the eye led the hand. We thus find no evidence to support the proposition that children with DCD coordinate their hands and eyes in a non-predictive fashion. In a follow-up exploratory analysis we did, however, note differences in fundamental patterns of eye movements between the groups, with children in the DCD group showing some evidence of atypical visual sampling strategies and gaze anchoring behaviours during the task.
Abstract.
Author URL.
Harris D, Wilson M, Vine S (2020). A critical analysis of the functional parameters of the quiet eye using immersive virtual reality. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, n/a, n/a-n/a.
Harris DJ, Wilson MR, Crowe EM, Vine SJ (2020). Examining the roles of working memory and visual attention in multiple object tracking expertise.
Cognitive Processing,
21(2), 209-222.
Abstract:
Examining the roles of working memory and visual attention in multiple object tracking expertise
AbstractWhen tracking multiple moving targets among visually similar distractors, human observers are capable of distributing attention over several spatial locations. It is unclear, however, whether capacity limitations or perceptual–cognitive abilities are responsible for the development of expertise in multiple object tracking. Across two experiments, we examined the role of working memory and visual attention in tracking expertise. In Experiment 1, individuals who regularly engaged in object tracking sports (soccer and rugby) displayed improved tracking performance, relative to non-tracking sports (swimming, rowing, running) (p = 0.02, ηp2 = 0.163), but no differences in gaze strategy (ps > 0.31). In Experiment 2, participants trained on an adaptive object tracking task showed improved tracking performance (p = 0.005, d = 0.817), but no changes in gaze strategy (ps > 0.07). They did, however, show significant improvement in a working memory transfer task (p < 0.001, d = 0.970). These findings indicate that the development of tracking expertise is more closely linked to processing capacity limits than perceptual–cognitive strategies.
Abstract.
Harris D, Wilson M, Holmes T, de Burgh T, Vine SJ (2020). Eye movements in sports research and practice: Immersive technologies as optimal environments for the study of gaze behaviour.
Abstract:
Eye movements in sports research and practice: Immersive technologies as optimal environments for the study of gaze behaviour
Head-mounted eye tracking has been fundamental for developing an understanding of sporting expertise, as the way in which performers sample visual information from the environment is a major determinant of successful performance. There is, however, a long running tension between the desire to study realistic, in-situ gaze behaviour and the difficulties of acquiring accurate ocular measurements in dynamic and fast-moving sporting tasks. Here, we describe how immersive technologies, such as virtual reality, offer an increasingly compelling approach for conducting eye movement research in sport. The possibility of studying gaze behaviour in representative and realistic environments, but with high levels of experimental control, could enable significant strides forward for eye tracking in sport and improve understanding of how eye movements underpin sporting skills. By providing a rationale for virtual reality as an optimal environment for eye tracking research, as well as outlining practical considerations related to hardware, software and data analysis, we hope to guide researchers and practitioners in the use of this approach.
Abstract.
Crowe EM, Moore LJ, Harris DJ, Wilson MR, Vine SJ (2020). In-task auditory performance-related feedback promotes cardiovascular markers of a challenge state during a pressurized task. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 33(5), 497-510.
Harris DJ, Wilson MR, Smith SJR, Meder N, Vine SJ (2020). Testing the Effects of 3D Multiple Object Tracking Training on Near, Mid and Far Transfer. Frontiers in Psychology, 11
Harris D, Hardcastle K, Wilson M, Vine SJ (2020). The development of visual search behaviours in immersive virtual reality.
Abstract:
The development of visual search behaviours in immersive virtual reality
Virtual reality (VR) has clear potential for improving simulation training in many industries. Yet, methods for testing the fidelity, validity and training efficacy of VR environments is, in general, lagging behind their adoption. In this study we examined the effectiveness of VR for training Police room searching procedures, and assessed the corresponding development of perceptual-cognitive expertise through eye-tracking indices of search efficiency. Participants (n=54) were assigned to a VR rule-learning and search training game, a search only training game or a no-practice control group. The VR search training group developed more efficient search behaviours (indexed by saccade size, search rate and gaze entropy) and performed better than controls on a novel transfer test. Efficient gaze behaviours learned during training were not, however, evident during the transfer test. These findings demonstrate how VR can be used to develop perceptual-cognitive skills, but also highlight the challenges of achieving transfer of training.
Abstract.
Harris DJ, Buckingham G, Wilson MR, Brookes J, Mushtaq F, Mon-Williams M, Vine SJ (2020). The effect of a virtual reality environment on gaze behaviour and motor skill learning. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 50, 101721-101721.
Harris D, Wilson M, Vine SJ (2020). The effect of crowd removal on goal scoring in professional football.
Abstract:
The effect of crowd removal on goal scoring in professional football
In the present work we sought to use the rare opportunity to compare professional sport without a crowd with typical performance from previous seasons. We focused on the English Premier League as, anecdotally, there appears to have been an increase in goal scoring. Our primary aims were to: 1) determine whether more goals are in fact being scored; and 2) if so, further explore whether any performance data can indicate why this might be the case.
Abstract.
Harris DJ, Vine SJ, Wilson MR (2019). An external focus of attention promotes flow experience during simulated driving.
Eur J Sport Sci,
19(6), 824-833.
Abstract:
An external focus of attention promotes flow experience during simulated driving.
Achieving a state of flow is associated with positive experiences and improved sporting performance (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). Focused attention is a fundamental component of the flow experience, but to date there has been little investigation of whether attention plays a causal role in creating flow, or is a product of it. Consequently, this study aimed to test the effect of an attentional focus manipulation on flow and performance in a simulated driving task. It was predicted that an external focus would lead to improved visuomotor control, greater flow experience and improved performance. Thirty-three participants from a student population completed the driving task under both internal and external focus instructions. Eye movements and steering wheel movements were recorded during each race. Participants reported greater flow experience (p 0.28). These findings suggest that adopting an external focus of attention may contribute to positive performance states such as flow.
Abstract.
Author URL.
Harris DJ, Wilson MR, Buckingham G, Vine SJ (2019). No effect of transcranial direct current stimulation of frontal, motor or visual cortex on performance of a self-paced visuomotor skill.
Psychology of Sport and Exercise,
43, 368-373.
Abstract:
No effect of transcranial direct current stimulation of frontal, motor or visual cortex on performance of a self-paced visuomotor skill
Objectives: Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a form of neurostimulation that can modulate neural activity in targeted brain regions through electrical current applied directly to the scalp. Previous findings have shown cognitive enhancement and improved motor learning following tDCS. Consequently, there has been growing interest in direct brain stimulation for enhancing sporting skills. We aimed to assess the effect of tDCS on golf putting performance and control of visual attention. Design: Using a mixed factorial design, the effect of stimulation (between-participants) was assessed at baseline, following stimulation and in a pressure test (within-participants). Methods: 73 novice golfers were randomly assigned to transcranial direct current stimulation of frontal, motor or visual cortex, or sham stimulation. Participants first performed a series of golf putts at baseline, then while receiving tDCS and finally under pressurised conditions. Putting performance (distance from the hole) and control of visual attention (quiet eye duration) was assessed. Results: There was no effect of real tDCS stimulation compared to sham stimulation on either performance or visual attention (quiet eye durations), for any stimulation site. Conclusions: While beneficial effects of tDCS have been found in computerised cognitive tests and simple motor tasks, there is currently little evidence that this will transfer to real-world sporting performance.
Abstract.
Moore LJ, Harris DJ, Sharpe BT, Vine SJ, Wilson MR (2019). Perceptual-cognitive expertise when refereeing the scrum in rugby union.
Journal of Sports Sciences,
37(15), 1778-1786.
Abstract:
Perceptual-cognitive expertise when refereeing the scrum in rugby union
Compared to sports performers, relatively little is known about how sports officials make decisions at a perceptual-cognitive level. Thus, this study examined the decision-making accuracy and gaze behaviour of rugby union referees of varying skill levels while reviewing scrum scenarios. Elite (n = 9) and trainee (n = 9) referees, as well as experienced players (n = 9), made decisions while watching ten projected scrum clips and wearing a mobile eye-tracker. Decision-making accuracy and gaze behaviour were recorded for each scrum. The elite and trainee referees made more accurate decisions than the players, and differences in gaze behavior were observed. The elite and trainee referees displayed lower search rates, spent more time fixating central-pack (i.e. front rows, binds, and contact point) and less time fixating outer-pack (e.g. second rows) and non-pack (e.g. other) locations, and exhibited lower entropy than the players. While search rate failed to predict decision-making accuracy, the time spent fixating central-, outer-, and non-pack locations, as well as entropy, were significant predictors. The findings have implications for training perceptual-cognitive skill among sports officials.
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Harris DJ, Vine SJ, Eysenck MW, Wilson MR (2019). To err again is human: exploring a bidirectional relationship between pressure and performance failure feedback.
Anxiety Stress Coping,
32(6), 670-678.
Abstract:
To err again is human: exploring a bidirectional relationship between pressure and performance failure feedback.
Background and Objectives: While the potentially negative effects of pressure on skilled performance have been well studied in laboratory-based research, theoretically driven questions based on real-world performance data are lacking. Design: We aimed to test the predictions of the newly developed Attentional Control Theory: Sport (ACTS), using archived play-by-play data from the past seven seasons of the National Football League (American Football). Methods: an additive scoring system was developed to characterize the degree of pressure on 212,356 individual offensive plays and a Bayesian regression model was used to test the relationship between performance, pressure and preceding negative outcomes, as outlined in ACTS. Results: There was found to be a clear increase in the incidence of failures on high pressure plays (odds ratio = 1.20), and on plays immediately following a previous play failure (odds ratio = 1.09). Additionally, a combined interactive effect of previous failure and pressure indicated that the feedback effect of negative outcomes was greater when pressure was already high (odds ratio = 1.10), in line with the predictions of ACTS. Conclusions: These findings reveal the importance of exploring momentary changes in pressure in real-world sport settings, and the role of failure feedback in influencing the pressure-performance relationship.
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Harris DJ, Buckingham G, Wilson MR, Vine SJ (2019). Virtually the same? How impaired sensory information in virtual reality may disrupt vision for action.
Exp Brain Res,
237(11), 2761-2766.
Abstract:
Virtually the same? How impaired sensory information in virtual reality may disrupt vision for action.
Virtual reality (VR) is a promising tool for expanding the possibilities of psychological experimentation and implementing immersive training applications. Despite a recent surge in interest, there remains an inadequate understanding of how VR impacts basic cognitive processes. Due to the artificial presentation of egocentric distance cues in virtual environments, a number of cues to depth in the optic array are impaired or placed in conflict with each other. Moreover, realistic haptic information is all but absent from current VR systems. The resulting conflicts could impact not only the execution of motor skills in VR but also raise deeper concerns about basic visual processing, and the extent to which virtual objects elicit neural and behavioural responses representative of real objects. In this brief review, we outline how the novel perceptual environment of VR may affect vision for action, by shifting users away from a dorsal mode of control. Fewer binocular cues to depth, conflicting depth information and limited haptic feedback may all impair the specialised, efficient, online control of action characteristic of the dorsal stream. A shift from dorsal to ventral control of action may create a fundamental disparity between virtual and real-world skills that has important consequences for how we understand perception and action in the virtual world.
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Harris DJ, Vine SJ, Wilson MR, McGrath JS, LeBel M-E, Buckingham G (2018). A randomised trial of observational learning from 2D and 3D models in robotically assisted surgery.
Surg Endosc,
32(11), 4527-4532.
Abstract:
A randomised trial of observational learning from 2D and 3D models in robotically assisted surgery.
BACKGROUND: Advances in 3D technology mean that both robotic surgical devices and surgical simulators can now incorporate stereoscopic viewing capabilities. While depth information may benefit robotic surgical performance, it is unclear whether 3D viewing also aids skill acquisition when learning from observing others. As observational learning plays a major role in surgical skills training, this study aimed to evaluate whether 3D viewing provides learning benefits in a robotically assisted surgical task. METHODS: 90 medical students were assigned to either (1) 2D or (2) 3D observation of a consultant surgeon performing a training task on the daVinci S robotic system, or (3) a no observation control, in a randomised parallel design. Subsequent performance and instrument movement metrics were assessed immediately following observation and at one-week retention. RESULTS: Both 2D and 3D groups outperformed no observation controls following the observation intervention (ps
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Harris DJ, Wilson MR, Vine SJ (2018). A systematic review of commercial cognitive training devices: Implications for use in sport.
Frontiers in Psychology,
9(MAY).
Abstract:
A systematic review of commercial cognitive training devices: Implications for use in sport
Background: Cognitive training (CT) aims to develop a range of skills, like attention and decision-making, through targeted training of core cognitive functions. While CT can target context specific skills, like movement anticipation, much CT is domain general, focusing on core abilities (e.g. selective attention) for transfer to a range of real-world tasks, such as spotting opponents. Commercial CT (CCT) devices are highly appealing for athletes and coaches due to their ease of use and eye-catching marketing claims. The extent to which this training transfers to performance in the sporting arena is, however, unclear. Therefore, this paper sought to provide a systematic review of evidence for beneficial training effects of CCT devices and evaluate their application to sport. Methods: an extensive search of electronic databases (PubMed, PsychInfo, GoogleScholar, and SportDiscus) was conducted to identify peer-reviewed evidence of training interventions with commercially available CT devices. Forty-three studies met the inclusion criteria and were retained for quality assessment and synthesis of results. Seventeen studies assessed transfer effects beyond laboratory cognitive tests, but only 1 directly assessed transfer to a sporting task. Results: the review of evidence showed limited support for far transfer benefits from CCT devices to sporting tasks, mainly because studies did not target the sporting environment. Additionally, a number of methodological issues with the CCT literature were identified, including small sample sizes, lack of retention tests, and limited replication of findings by researchers independent of the commercial product. Therefore, evidence for sporting benefits is currently limited by the paucity of representative transfer tests and a focus on populations with health conditions. Conclusions: Currently there is little direct evidence that the use of CCT devices can transfer to benefits for sporting performance. This conclusion, however, stems more from a lack of experimental studies in the sporting field and a lack of experimental rigor, rather than convincing null effects. Subsequently, there is an opportunity for researchers to develop more reliable findings in this area through systematic assessment in athletic populations and major methodological improvements.
Abstract.
Harris DJ, Vine SJ, Wilson MR, McGrath JS, LeBel ME, Buckingham G (2018). Action observation for sensorimotor learning in surgery.
British Journal of Surgery,
105(13), 1713-1720.
Abstract:
Action observation for sensorimotor learning in surgery
Background: Acquiring new motor skills to learn complex movements and master the use of a diverse range of instruments is fundamental for developing expertise in surgery. Although aspects of skill development occur through trial and error, watching the performance of another individual (action observation) is an increasingly important adjunct for the acquisition of these complex skills before performing a procedure. The aim of this review was to examine the evidence in support of the use of action observation in surgery. Methods: a narrative review of observational learning for surgical motor skills was undertaken. Searches of PubMed and PsycINFO databases were performed using the terms ‘observational learning’ OR ‘action observation’ AND ‘motor learning’ OR ‘skill learning’. Results: Factors such as the structure of physical practice, the skill level of the demonstrator and the use of feedback were all found to be important moderators of the effectiveness of observational learning. In particular, observation of both expert and novice performance, cueing attention to key features of the task, and watching the eye movements of expert surgeons were all found to enhance the effectiveness of observation. It was unclear, however, whether repeated observations were beneficial for skill learning. The evidence suggests that these methods can be employed to enhance surgical training curricula. Conclusion: Observational learning is an effective method for learning surgical skills. An improved understanding of observational learning may further inform the refinement and use of these methods in contemporary surgical training curricula.
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Harris DJ, Vine SJ, Wilson MR (2017). Flow and quiet eye: the role of attentional control in flow experience.
Cogn Process,
18(3), 343-347.
Abstract:
Flow and quiet eye: the role of attentional control in flow experience.
This report was designed to investigate the role of effective attention control in flow states, by developing an experimental approach to the study of flow. A challenge-skill balance manipulation was applied to self-paced netball and basketball shooting tasks, with point of gaze recorded through mobile eye tracking. Quiet eye was used to index optimal control of visual attention. While the experimental manipulation was found to have no effect, quiet eye was associated with the experience of flow. Furthermore, mediation revealed an indirect effect of quiet eye on performance through flow experience. This study provides initial evidence that flow may be preceded by changes in visual attention, suggesting that further investigation of visual attention may elucidate the cognitive mechanisms behind flow experience.
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Harris DJ, Vine SJ, Wilson MR (2017). Is flow really effortless? the complex role of effortful attention.
Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology,
6(1), 103-114.
Abstract:
Is flow really effortless? the complex role of effortful attention
The predominant characterization of flow in sport has emphasized athletes' reports of reduced conscious attention and effort; however, this is difficult to reconcile with other reports of superior focus and lack of distraction. The aim of this study was to explore this tension by testing novel, theoretically driven predictions for subjective and objective mental effort and by assessing visual attention control using an experimental research design. Specifically, we predicted that perceived and actual effortful attention might dissociate across 3 conditions of a simulated car-racing task designed to manipulate the level of flow: too easy, matched to skill (flow), and too difficult. Task absorption, objective mental effort, and focused gaze were all highest in the matched condition. However, objective performance, reported fluency, and mental effort demonstrated a linear relationship across conditions (participants performed worse and reported more effort and less fluency as difficulty increased). These results suggest a dichotomy between objective and reported effort and suggest that flow is underpinned by efficient attentional control.
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Harris DJ, Vine SJ, Wilson MR (2017). Neurocognitive mechanisms of the flow state.
,
234, 221-243.
Abstract:
Neurocognitive mechanisms of the flow state
While the experience of flow is often described in attentional terms—focused concentration or task absorption—specific cognitive mechanisms have received limited interest. We propose that an attentional explanation provides the best way to advance theoretical models and produce practical applications, as well as providing potential solutions to core issues such as how an objectively difficult task can be subjectively effortless. Recent research has begun to utilize brain-imaging techniques to investigate neurocognitive changes during flow, which enables attentional mechanisms to be understood in greater detail. Some tensions within flow research are discussed; including the dissociation between psychophysiological and experiential measures, and the equivocal neuroimaging findings supporting prominent accounts of hypofrontality. While flow has received only preliminary investigation from a neuroscientific perspective, findings already provide important insights into the crucial role played by higher-order attentional networks, and clear indications of reduced activity in brain regions linked to self-referential processing. The manner in which these processes may benefit sporting performance are discussed.
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Harris DJ, Vine SJ, Wilson MR, McGrath JS, LeBel M-E, Buckingham G (2017). The effect of observing novice and expert performance on acquisition of surgical skills on a robotic platform.
PLoS One,
12(11).
Abstract:
The effect of observing novice and expert performance on acquisition of surgical skills on a robotic platform.
BACKGROUND: Observational learning plays an important role in surgical skills training, following the traditional model of learning from expertise. Recent findings have, however, highlighted the benefit of observing not only expert performance but also error-strewn performance. The aim of this study was to determine which model (novice vs. expert) would lead to the greatest benefits when learning robotically assisted surgical skills. METHODS: 120 medical students with no prior experience of robotically-assisted surgery completed a ring-carrying training task on three occasions; baseline, post-intervention and at one-week follow-up. The observation intervention consisted of a video model performing the ring-carrying task, with participants randomly assigned to view an expert model, a novice model, a mixed expert/novice model or no observation (control group). Participants were assessed for task performance and surgical instrument control. RESULTS: There were significant group differences post-intervention, with expert and novice observation groups outperforming the control group, but there were no clear group differences at a retention test one week later. There was no difference in performance between the expert-observing and error-observing groups. CONCLUSIONS: Similar benefits were found when observing the traditional expert model or the error-strewn model, suggesting that viewing poor performance may be as beneficial as viewing expertise in the early acquisition of robotic surgical skills. Further work is required to understand, then inform, the optimal curriculum design when utilising observational learning in surgical training.
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