Background: the choice of geographical unit of analysis in studies of the built environment and physical activity has typically been restricted to the home neighbourhood where only a small proportion of physical activity may actually be undertaken. This study aimed to examine the distance from home at which physical activity takes place and how this varies by personal and neighbourhood characteristics.
Methods: a cross-sectional, population based study of 195 people in the North West region of England, aged 18 to 91 years, clustered in 60 localities (small geographical areas of ~125 households). Individual socio-demographic data were collected by computer-aided personal interviews and physical activity was characterised by accelerometer and Global Positioning System (GPS) data. The locations of periods of light, moderate and vigorous intensity physical activity (LMVPA) undertaken outdoors were linked to measures of the neighbourhood around the home and distance from home.
Results: Sixty per cent of outdoors LMVPA took place outside of the proximal home neighbourhood (800m buffer). Distances from home where median levels of LMVPA were undertaken varied by gender (p

Sleep is an essential human function but its regulation is poorly understood. Using accelerometer data from 85,670 UK Biobank participants, we perform a genome-wide association study of 8 derived sleep traits representing sleep quality, quantity and timing, and validate our findings in 5,819 individuals. We identify 47 genetic associations at P

Telomere shortening is a biological aging hallmark. The effect of short telomere length may be targeted by increased physical activity to reduce the risk of multiple aging-related diseases, including coronary heart disease (CHD). The objective was to assess the moderation effect of accelerometer-based physical activity (aPA) on the association between shorter leukocyte telomere length (LTL) relatively in the population sample and incident CHD. Data were from the UK Biobank participants with well-calibrated accelerometer data for at least 6.5 days (n = 54,180). Relative mean LTL at baseline (5-6 years prior to aPA assessment) was measured in T/S ratio, using a multiplex quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) technology, by comparing the amount of the telomere amplification product (T) to that of a single-copy gene (S). aPA measures included total number of events (at least 10-s continued physical activity > 32 milligravities [mg]), total volume, mean duration, mean intensity, and peak intensity of all events. LTL, aPA measures, and their interactions were associated with incident CHD (mean follow-up 6.8 years) using Cox proportional hazards models adjusting for covariates. Longer LTL (relative to the sample distribution) was associated with reduced incidence of CHD (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR] = 0.94 per standard deviation [SD] increase in LTL, [95% CI, 0.90 to 0.99], P = .010). Incidence of CHD was reduced by higher total volume of aPA (aHR = 0.82 per SD increase in LTL, [95% CI, 0.71 to 0.95], P = .010) but increased by higher total number of events (aHR = 1.11 per SD increase in LTL, [95% CI, 1.02 to 1.21], P = .020) after controlling for other aPA measures and covariates. However, none of the interactions between LTL and aPA measures was statistically significant (P = .171).

Background: Continued proliferation of accelerometers in physical activity research has opened new avenues for understanding activity behaviours beyond simple aggregate measures of frequency and duration. This study explores the standing and stepping composition, and the temporal distribution, of upright events, and investigates their associations with sociodemographic and health factors. Methods: Participants from the 1970 British Cohort Study wore activPAL3 accelerometers for seven days. Event-based analysis was used to extract a time series of upright, standing, and stepping events. Derived metrics included daily number of upright and stepping events, total upright and stepping time, the burstiness of upright events and burstiness of sedentary events (burstiness refers to the pattern of how physical activity and sedentary behaviour are distributed throughout a given time period), within-event stepping proportion, within-event step count, and stepping cadence. Generalized linear regression models, adjusted for total step count, were employed to explore associations between derived metrics and sociodemographic and health-related factors. Results: a total of 4527 participants, provided 30992 valid days (≥ 10 h of waking wear) and 1.64 million upright events. Upright event composition and temporal distribution varied across a range of sociodemographic and health-related factors. Females had more upright events than males (4.39 [3.41,5.38] n), spent more time upright, and exhibited burstier patterns of upright events (0.05 [0.04,0.05] Bn). Individuals with higher BMI had fewer upright events and a lower daily step count, but their temporal distribution of upright events was less bursty (overweight -0.02 [-0.02,-0.01] Bn; obese -0.03 [-0.04,-0.02] Bn), and upright events had a higher step count. People in active occupations were upright for longer, displayed burstier patterns of upright events (standing 0.04 [0.03,0.05] Bn; physical work 0.05 [0.04,0.05] Bn; heavy manual 0.06 [0.04,0.07] Bn), with more variable durations and shorter, slower paced stepping events compared with sedentary occupations. Conclusions: This study has revealed novel phenotypes of standing and sitting that go beyond simple aggregate measures of total steps, step event duration or time between events. People with the same volume of stepping and frequency of gaps between upright events can accumulate their steps in very different ways. These differences and associations with population sub-groups, which persisted after adjustment for total stepping volume, may have important relations with functional and health outcomes. The findings lay the groundwork for future studies to investigate how different sitting and standing phenotypes can add to our understanding of the relationship between physical activity and health.

BACKGROUND: the Active Connected Engaged [ACE] study is a multi-centre, pragmatic, two-arm, parallel-group randomised controlled trial [RCT] with an internal pilot phase. The ACE study incorporates a multi-level mixed methods process evaluation including a systems mapping approach and an economic evaluation. ACE aims to test the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of a peer-volunteer led active ageing intervention designed to support older adults at risk of mobility disability to become more physically and socially active within their communities and to reduce or reverse, the progression of functional limitations associated with ageing. METHODS/DESIGN: Community-dwelling, older adults aged 65 years and older (n = 515), at risk of mobility disability due to reduced lower limb physical functioning (Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB) score of 4-9 inclusive) will be recruited. Participants will be randomised to receive either a minimal control intervention or ACE, a 6-month programme underpinned by behaviour change theory, whereby peer volunteers are paired with participants and offer them individually tailored support to engage them in local physical and social activities to improve lower limb mobility and increase their physical activity. Outcome data will be collected at baseline, 6, 12 and 18 months. The primary outcome analysis (difference in SPPB score at 18 months) will be undertaken blinded to group allocation. Primary comparative analyses will be on an intention-to-treat (ITT) basis with due emphasis placed on confidence intervals. DISCUSSION: ACE is the largest, pragmatic, community-based randomised controlled trial in the UK to target this high-risk segment of the older population by mobilising community resources (peer volunteers). A programme that can successfully engage this population in sufficient activity to improve strength, coordination, balance and social connections would have a major impact on sustaining health and independence. ACE is also the first study of its kind to conduct a full economic and comprehensive process evaluation of this type of community-based intervention. If effective and cost-effective, the ACE intervention has strong potential to be implemented widely in the UK and elsewhere. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN, ISRCTN17660493. Registered on 30 September 2021. Trial Sponsor: University of Birmingham, Contact: Dr Birgit Whitman, Head of Research Governance and Integrity; Email: researchgovernance@contacts.bham.ac.uk. Protocol Version 5 22/07/22.

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to examine the association between device-measured physical activity (PA) and performance-based measures of physical function (PF). Databases searched included CINAHL, Embase, MEDLINE/PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science (last search conducted on November 11, 2022). Observational studies (cross-sectional or prospective) reporting associations between wearable device-measured PA and PF outcomes in non-clinical adults were eligible. Forty-two studies with a pooled sample of 27 276 participants were eligible, with 34 studies reporting a standardised regression coefficient (β) between at least one of four PA measures and one of six PF outcomes. All measures of PA were positively associated with all measures of PF, except for step count with grip strength. Largest associations were seen with lower-body PF tests; gait speed (βs=0.11–0.26), walk tests (βs=0.18–0.41), chair-rise test (βs=0.10–0.26), balance (βs=0.07–0.24) and Timed Up-and-Go (βs=0.10–0.24) all p<0.01. Small or no association was seen with grip strength (βs=0.02–0.07). In observational studies of general adult populations, there were associations between multiple dimensions of PA and a broad range of PF measures. The findings provide provisional support for the use of device measures of movement to remotely monitor people for risk of low PF. Prospective designs are needed to determine the direction of the relationship. Future studies should also explore a broader range of PA metrics beyond simple aggregate measures of time spent at different acceleration values as there is evidence that the temporal distribution of activity is related to health and functional outcomes.

The aim of this review was to understand the association between habitual physical activity (hPA) and carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (cfPWV) in an ostensibly healthy adult population. Searches were performed in MEDLINE Web of Science, SPORTDiscus and CINAHL databases published up to 01/01/2022 (PROSPERO, Registration No: CRD42017067159). Observational English-language studies assessing the relationship between cfPWV and hPA (measured via self-report or device-based measures) were considered for inclusion in a narrative synthesis. Studies were excluded if studying specific disease. Studies were further included in pooled analyses where a standardised association statistic for continuous hPA and cfPWV was available. 29 studies were included in narrative synthesis, of which 18 studies provided sufficient data for pooled analyses, totalling 15,573 participants. A weak, significant, negative correlation between hPA and cfPWV was observed; partial r = -0.08 95%CI [-0.15, -0.01]; P = 0.045. Heterogeneity was high (I2 = 94.5% P

. Background
. Mobility limitation in older age reduces quality of life, generates substantial health- and social-care costs, and increases mortality.
.
.
. Objective
. The REtirement in ACTion (REACT) trial aimed to establish whether or not a community-based active ageing intervention could prevent decline in physical functioning in older adults already at increased risk of mobility limitation.
.
.
. Design
. A multicentre, pragmatic, two-arm, parallel-group randomised controlled trial with parallel process and health economic evaluations.
.
.
. Setting
. Urban and semi-rural locations across three sites in England.
.
.
. Participants
. Physically frail or pre-frail older adults (aged ≥ 65 years; Short Physical Performance Battery score of 4–9). Recruitment was primarily via 35 primary care practices.
.
.
. Interventions
. Participants were randomly assigned to receive brief advice (three healthy ageing education sessions) or a 12-month, group-based, multimodal exercise and behavioural maintenance programme delivered in fitness and community centres. Randomisation was stratified by site and used a minimisation algorithm to balance age, sex and Short Physical Performance Battery score. Data collection and analyses were blinded.
.
.
. Main outcome measures
. The primary outcome was change in lower limb physical function (Short Physical Performance Battery score) at 24 months, analysed using an intention-to-treat analysis. The economic evaluation adopted the NHS and Personal Social Services perspective.
.
.
. Results
. Between June 2016 and October 2017, 777 participants (mean age 77.6 years, standard deviation 6.8 years; 66% female; mean Short Physical Performance Battery score 7.37, standard deviation 1.56) were randomised to the intervention arm (n = 410) or the control arm (n = 367). Data collection was completed in October 2019. Primary outcome data at 24 months were provided by 628 (80.8%) participants. At the 24-month follow-up, the Short Physical Performance Battery score was significantly greater in the intervention arm (mean 8.08, standard deviation 2.87) than in the control arm (mean 7.59, standard deviation 2.61), with an adjusted mean difference of 0.49 (95% confidence interval 0.06 to 0.92). The difference in lower limb function between intervention and control participants was clinically meaningful at both 12 and 24 months. Self-reported physical activity significantly increased in the intervention arm compared with the control arm, but this change was not observed in device-based physical activity data collected during the trial. One adverse event was related to the intervention. Attrition rates were low (19% at 24 months) and adherence was high. Engagement with the REACT intervention was associated with positive changes in exercise competence, relatedness and enjoyment and perceived physical, social and mental well-being benefits. The intervention plus usual care was cost-effective compared with care alone over the 2 years of REACT; the price year was 2019. In the base-case scenario, the intervention saved £103 per participant, with a quality-adjusted life-year gain of 0.04 (95% confidence interval 0.006 to 0.074) within the 2-year trial window. Lifetime horizon modelling estimated that further cost savings and quality-adjusted life-year gains were accrued up to 15 years post randomisation.
.
.
. Conclusion
. A relatively low-resource, 1-year multimodal exercise and behavioural maintenance intervention can help older adults to retain physical functioning over a 24-month period. The results indicate that the well-established trajectory of declining physical functioning in older age is modifiable.
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.
. Limitations
. Participants were not blinded to study arm allocation. However, the primary outcome was independently assessed by blinded data collectors. The secondary outcome analyses were exploratory, with no adjustment for multiple testing, and should be interpreted accordingly.
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. Future work
. Following refinements guided by the process evaluation findings, the REACT intervention is suitable for large-scale implementation. Further research will optimise implementation of REACT at scale.
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. Trial registration
. This trial is registered as ISRCTN45627165.
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. Funding
. This project was funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Public Health Research programme and will be published in full in Public Health Research; Vol. 10, No. 14. See the NIHR Journals Library website for further project information.
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PURPOSE: the aim of this study was to systematically review the literature on accelerometer-measured physical activity and health outcomes in adults. METHODS: Eight electronic databases were searched for relevant articles published up to March 2021. Only population-based studies of adults (age ≥18 yr) that directly compared two or more categories of physical activity (i.e. bout duration, intensity, and daily/weekly frequency) with a health outcome (e.g. mortality, cardiometabolic, healthy aging, depression, sleep, and brain structure) were included. RESULTS: of the 15,923 publications retrieved, 52 articles were included. Twenty-eight studies directly compared the associations between physical activity accumulated in different bout durations, 31 studies directly compared the associations between physical activity accumulated in different intensities, and 9 studies directly compared the associations between the effects of varying daily and weekly frequencies of physical activity, with health outcomes. Most showed no differences in relationships with health outcomes when physical activity was accumulated in short (

AbstractBackgroundInternational guidelines for physical activity recommend at least 150 min per week of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) for adults, including those with cardiac disease. There is yet to be consensus on the most appropriate way to categorise raw accelerometer data into behaviourally relevant metrics such as intensity, especially in chronic disease populations. Therefore the aim of this study was to estimate acceleration values corresponding to inactivity and MVPA during daily living activities of patients with heart failure (HF), via calibration with oxygen consumption (VO2) and to compare these values to previously published, commonly applied PA intensity thresholds which are based on healthy adults.MethodsTwenty-two adults with HF (mean age 71 ± 14 years) undertook a range of daily living activities (including laying down, sitting, standing and walking) whilst measuring PA via wrist- and hip-worn accelerometers and VO2via indirect calorimetry. Raw accelerometer output was used to compute PA in units of milligravity (mg). Energy expenditure across each of the activities was converted into measured METs (VO2/resting metabolic rate) and standard METs (VO2/3.5 ml/kg/min). PA energy costs were also compared with predicted METs in the compendium of physical activities. Location specific activity intensity thresholds were established via multilevel mixed effects linear regression and receiver operator characteristic curve analysis. A leave-one-out method was used to cross-validate the thresholds.ResultsAccelerometer values corresponding with intensity thresholds for inactivity (< 1.5METs) and MVPA (≥3.0METs) were > 50% lower than previously published intensity thresholds for both wrists and waist accelerometers (inactivity: 16.7 to 18.6 mg versus 45.8 mg; MVPA: 43.1 to 49.0 mg versus 93.2 to 100 mg). Measured METs were higher than both standard METs (34–35%) and predicted METs (45–105%) across all standing and walking activities.ConclusionHF specific accelerometer intensity thresholds for inactivity and MVPA are lower than previously published thresholds based on healthy adults, due to lower resting metabolic rate and greater energy expenditure during daily living activities for HF patients.Trial registrationClinical trials.govNCT03659877, retrospectively registered on September 6th 2018.

Using genome-wide data from 697,828 UK Biobank and 23andMe participants, we increase the number of identified loci associated with being a morning person, a behavioural indicator of a person’s underlying circadian rhythm, from 24 to 351. Using data from 85,760 individuals with activity-monitor derived measures of sleep timing we demonstrate that the chronotype loci influence sleep timing: the mean sleep timing of the 5% of individuals carrying the most morningness alleles is 25 minutes earlier than the 5% carrying the fewest. The loci are enriched for genes involved in circadian regulation, cAMP, glutamate and insulin signalling pathways, and those expressed in the retina, hindbrain, hypothalamus, and pituitary. Using Mendelian Randomisation, we show that being a morning person is causally associated with better mental health but does not affect BMI or risk of Type 2 diabetes. This study offers insights into circadian biology and its links to disease in humans.

OBJECTIVE: to undertake a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the impact of cardiac rehabilitation (CR) on physical activity (PA) levels of patients with heart disease and the methodological quality of these studies. METHODS: Databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, CENTRAL, CINAHL, PsychINFO and SportDiscus) were searched without language restriction from inception to January 2017 for randomised controlled trials (RCTs) comparing CR to usual care control in adults with heart failure (HF) or coronary heart disease (CHD) and measuring PA subjectively or objectively. The direction of PA difference between CR and control was summarised using vote counting (ie, counting the positive, negative and non-significant results) and meta-analysis. RESULTS: Forty RCTs, (6480 patients: 5825 CHD, 655 HF) were included with 26% (38/145) PA results showing a statistically significant improvement in PA levels with CR compared with control. This pattern of results appeared consistent regardless of type of CR intervention (comprehensive vs exercise-only) or PA measurement (objective vs subjective). Meta-analysis showed PA increases in the metrics of steps/day (1423, 95% CI 757.07 to 2089.43, p

Background Although childhood overweight and obesity prevalence has increased substantially worldwide in the past three decades, scarce evidence exists for effective preventive strategies. We aimed to establish whether a school-based intervention for children aged 9–10 years would prevent excessive weight gain after 24 months. Methods This pragmatic cluster randomised controlled trial of the Healthy Lifestyles Programme (HeLP), a school-based obesity prevention intervention, was done in 32 schools in southwest England. All state-run primary and junior schools in Devon and Plymouth (UK) with enough pupils for at least one year-5 class were eligible. Schools were assigned (1:1) using a computer-generated sequence to either intervention or control, stratified by the number of year-5 classes (one vs more than one) and the proportion of children eligible for free school meals (

Many activities of daily living require muscular strength and power as well as balance. Consequently, preserving musculoskeletal function is a prerequisite for maintaining mobility and independent living during ageing. Estimates suggest that the prevalence of physical activity guidelines for strength and balance is low. Review of reviews of: a) observation studies of the prospective association between measures of musculoskeletal fitness and health outcomes and b) randomised controlled trials of resistance, balance and skeletal impact training exercises on bone health, risk of falls, physical function, motor and cognitive function, quality of life and activities of daily living. Preserving muscular strength/power in middle and older age is associated with a reduced risk of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Impaired muscular strength/power and balance is associated with an increased risk of falls and lower bone mineral content. Regular supervised exercise incorporating high intensity resistance training, vertical impacts and a balance challenge are most likely to be beneficial to health and wellbeing, bone health and reduce the risks of falls. Adults in late middle and older age would benefit from a regular program of exercise that incorporates high intensity resistance training, impact exercises and balance challenges.

BACKGROUND: Primary care is an ideal setting for physical activity interventions to prevent and manage common long-term conditions. To identify those who can benefit from such interventions and to deliver tailored support, primary care professionals (e.g. GPs, practice nurses, physiotherapists, health care assistants) need reliable and valid tools to assess physical activity. However, there is uncertainty about the best-performing tool. OBJECTIVE: to identify the tools used in the literature to assess the physical activity in primary care and describe their psychometric properties. METHOD: a systematic review of published and unpublished literature was undertaken up to 1 December 2016). Papers detailing physical activity measures, tools or approaches used in primary care consultations were included. A synthesis of the frequency and context of their use, and their psychometric properties, was undertaken. Studies were appraised using the Downs and Black critical appraisal tool and the COnsensus-based Standards for the selection of health Measurement Instruments (COSMIN) initiative checklist. RESULTS: Fourteen papers reported 10 physical activity assessment tools. The General Practice Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPPAQ) was most frequently reported. None of the assessment tools identified showed high reliability and validity. Intra-rater reliability ranged from kappa: 0.53 [Brief Physical Activity Assessment Tool (BPAAT)] to 0.67 (GPPAQ). Criterion validity ranged from Pearson's rho: 0.26 (GPPAQ) to 0.52 (Physical Activity Vital Sign). Concurrent validity ranged from kappa: 0.24 (GPPAQ) to 0.64 (BPAAT). CONCLUSION: the evidence base about physical activity assessment in primary care is insufficient to inform current practice.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Evidence for the long-term health effects of specific sport disciplines is scarce. Therefore, we examined the associations of six different types of sport/exercise with all-cause and cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality risk in a large pooled Scottish and English population-based cohort. METHODS: Cox proportional hazards regression was used to investigate the associations between each exposure and all-cause and CVD mortality with adjustment for potential confounders in 80�
306 individuals (54% women; mean±SD age: 52±14�
years). RESULTS: Significant reductions in all-cause mortality were observed for participation in cycling (HR=0.85, 95% CI 0.76 to 0.95), swimming (HR=0.72, 95% CI 0.65 to 0.80), racquet sports (HR=0.53, 95% CI 0.40 to 0.69) and aerobics (HR=0.73, 95% CI 0.63 to 0.85). No significant associations were found for participation in football and running. A significant reduction in CVD mortality was observed for participation in swimming (HR=0.59, 95% CI 0.46 to 0.75), racquet sports (HR=0.44, 95% CI 0.24 to 0.83) and aerobics (HR=0.64, 95% CI 0.45 to 0.92), but there were no significant associations for cycling, running and football. Variable dose-response patterns between the exposure and the outcomes were found across the sport disciplines. CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate that participation in specific sports may have significant benefits for public health. Future research should aim to further strengthen the sport-specific epidemiological evidence base and understanding of how to promote greater sports participation.

BACKGROUND: the Healthy Lifestyles Programme (HeLP) was a novel school-located intervention for 9-10 year olds, designed to prevent obesity by changing patterns of child behaviour through the creation of supportive school and home environments using dynamic and creative delivery methods. This paper reports on both the quantitative and qualitative data regarding the implementation of the HeLP intervention in the definitive cluster randomised controlled trial, which was part of the wider process evaluation. METHODS: Mixed methods were used to collect data on intervention uptake, fidelity of delivery in terms of content and quality of delivery of the intervention, as well as school and child engagement with the programme. Data were collected using registers of attendance, observations and checklists, field notes, focus groups with children and semi-structured interviews with teachers. Qualitative data were analysed thematically and quantitative data were summarized using descriptive statistics. RESULTS: all 16 intervention schools received a complete or near complete programme (94-100%), which was delivered in the spirit in which it had been designed. of the 676 children in the intervention schools, over 90% of children participated in each phase of HeLP; 92% of children across the socio-economic spectrum were deemed to be engaged with HeLP and qualitative data revealed a high level of enjoyment by all children, particularly to the interactive drama workshops. Further evidence of child engagment with the programme was demonstrated by children's clear understanding of programme messages around marketing, moderation and food labelling. Thirteen of the intervention schools were deemed to be fully engaged with HeLP and qualitative data revealed a high level of teacher 'buy in', due to the programme's compatability with the National Curriculum, level of teacher support and use of innovative and creative delivery methods by external drama practitioners. CONCLUSION: Our trial shows that it is possible to successfully scale up complex school-based interventions, engage schools and children across the socio-economic spectrum and deliver an intervention as designed. As programme integrity was maintained throughout the HeLP trial, across all intervention schools, we can be confident that the trial findings are a true reflection of the effectiveness of the intervention, enabling policy recommendations to be made. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN15811706.

The relationship between sedentary behaviour and physical activity and their role in the development of health conditions is an ongoing topic of research. This debate paper presents arguments in favour and against the statement: "Is sedentary behaviour just physical inactivity by another name?" the paper finishes with recommendations for future research in the field of sedentary behaviour, physical activity and public health.

BACKGROUND: the Healthy Lifestyles Programme (HeLP) trial is being conducted to determine whether a novel school-based intervention is effective and cost-effective in preventing obesity in 9-10 year-old children. This article describes the detailed statistical analysis plan for the HeLP trial, including an amendment (and rationale for amendment) made to originally planned sensitivity analyses. METHODS AND DESIGN: the HeLP trial is a definitive, pragmatic, superiority, cluster randomised controlled trial with two parallel groups and blinded outcome assessment. This update article describes in detail (1) the primary and secondary outcomes, (2) the statistical analysis principles (including which children will be included in each analysis, how the clustered nature of the study design will be accounted for, which covariates will be included in each analysis, how the results will be presented), (3) planned sensitivity analyses, planned subgroup analyses and planned adherence-adjusted analyses for the primary outcome, (4) planned analyses for the secondary outcomes and (e) planned longitudinal analyses. TRIAL REGISTRATION: International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Number (ISRCTN) register: ISRCTN15811706. Registered on 1 May 2012.

BACKGROUND: Sitting behaviours have been linked with increased risk of all-cause mortality independent of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Previous studies have tended to examine single indicators of sitting or all sitting behaviours combined. This study aims to enhance the evidence base by examining the type-specific prospective associations of four different sitting behaviours as well as total sitting with the risk of all-cause mortality. METHODS: Participants (3720 men and 1412 women) from the Whitehall II cohort study who were free from cardiovascular disease provided information on weekly sitting time (at work, during leisure time, while watching TV, during leisure time excluding TV, and at work and during leisure time combined) and covariates in 1997-99. Cox proportional hazards models were used to investigate prospective associations between sitting time (h/week) and mortality risk. Follow-up was from date of measurement until (the earliest of) death, date of censor or July 31 2014. RESULTS: over 81 373 person-years of follow-up (mean follow-up time 15.7 ± 2.2 years) a total of 450 deaths were recorded. No associations were observed between any of the five sitting indicators and mortality risk, either in unadjusted models or models adjusted for covariates including MVPA. CONCLUSIONS: Sitting time was not associated with all-cause mortality risk. The results of this study suggest that policy makers and clinicians should be cautious about placing emphasis on sitting behaviour as a risk factor for mortality that is distinct from the effect of physical activity.

Background
Depression is associated with physical inactivity, which may mediate the relationship between depression and a range of chronic physical health conditions. However, few interventions have combined a psychological intervention for depression with behaviour change techniques, such as behavioural activation (BA), to promote increased physical activity.

Methods
To determine procedural and clinical uncertainties to inform a definitive randomised controlled trial (RCT), a pilot parallel-group RCT was undertaken within two Improving Access to Psychological Therapies (IAPT) services in South West England. We aimed to recruit 80 adults with depression and randomise them to a supported, written self-help programme based on either BA or BA plus physical activity promotion (BAcPAc). Data were collected at baseline and 4 months post-randomisation to evaluate trial retention, intervention uptake and variance in outcomes to inform a sample size calculation. Qualitative data were collected from participants and psychological wellbeing practitioners (PWPs) to assess the acceptability and feasibility of the trial methods and the intervention. Routine data were collected to evaluate resource use and cost.

Results
Sixty people with depression were recruited, and a 73 % follow-up rate was achieved. Accelerometer physical activity data were collected for 64 % of those followed. Twenty participants (33 %) attended at least one treatment appointment. Interview data were analysed for 15 participants and 9 study PWPs. The study highlighted the challenges of conducting an RCT within existing IAPT services with high staff turnover and absences, participant scheduling issues, PWP and participant preferences for cognitive focussed treatment, and deviations from BA delivery protocols. The BAcPAc intervention was generally acceptable to patients and PWPs.

Conclusions
Although recruitment procedures and data collection were challenging, participants generally engaged with the BAcPAc self-help booklets and reported willingness to increase their physical activity. A number of feasibility issues were identified, in particular the under-use of BA as a treatment for depression, the difficulty that PWPs had in adapting their existing procedures for study purposes and the instability of the IAPT PWP workforce. These problems would need to be better understood and resolved before proceeding to a full-scale RCT.

BACKGROUND: Objective measures of physical activity and function with a diverse cohort of UK adults in their 70s and 80s were used to investigate relative risk of all-cause mortality and diagnoses of new diseases over a 4-year period. PARTICIPANTS: Two hundred and forty older adults were randomly recruited from 12 general practices in urban and suburban areas of a city in the United Kingdom. Follow-up included 213 of the baseline sample. METHODS: Socio-demographic variables, height and weight, and self-reported diagnosed diseases were recorded at baseline. Seven-day accelerometry was used to assess total physical activity, moderate-to-vigorous activity and sedentary time. A log recorded trips from home. Lower limb function was assessed using the Short Physical Performance Battery. Medical records were accessed on average 50 months post baseline, when new diseases and deaths were recorded. ANALYSES: ANOVAs were used to assess socio-demographic, physical activity and lower limb function group differences in diseases at baseline and new diseases during follow-up. Regression models were constructed to assess the prospective associations between physical activity and function with mortality and new disease. RESULTS: for every 1,000 steps walked per day, the risk of mortality was 36% lower (hazard ratios 0.64, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.44-0.91, P=0.013). Low levels of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (incident rate ratio (IRR) 1.67, 95% CI 1.04-2.68, P=0.030) and low frequency of trips from home (IRR 1.41, 95% CI 0.98-2.05, P=0.045) were associated with diagnoses of more new diseases. CONCLUSION: Physical activity should be supported for adults in their 70s and 80s, as it is associated with reduced risk of mortality and new disease development.

BACKGROUND: Challenges remain to find ways to support patients with depression who have low levels of physical activity (PA) to overcome perceived barriers and enhance the perceived value of PA for preventing future relapse. There is an evidence-base for behavioural activation (BA) for depression, which focuses on supporting patients to restore activities that have been avoided, but practitioners have no specific training in promoting PA. We aimed to design and evaluate an integrated BA and PA (BAcPAc) practitioner-led, written, self-help intervention to enhance both physical and mental health. METHODS/DESIGN: This study is informed by the Medical Research Council Complex Intervention Framework and describes a protocol for a pilot phase II randomised controlled trial (RCT) to test the feasibility and acceptability of the trial methods to inform a definitive phase III RCT. Following development of the augmented written self-help intervention (BAcPAc) incorporating behavioural activation with physical activity promotion, depressed adults are randomised to receive up to 12 sessions over a maximum of 4 months of either BAcPAc or behavioural activation alone within a written self-help format, which represents treatment as usual. The study is located within two 'Improving Access to Psychological Therapies' services in South West England, with both written self-help interventions supported by mental health paraprofessionals. Measures assessed at 4, 9, and 12 month follow-up include the following: CIS-R, PHQ-9, accelerometer recorded (4 months only) and self-reported PA, body mass index, blood pressure, Insomnia Severity Index, quality of life, and health and social care service use. Process evaluation will include analysis of recorded support sessions and patient and practitioner interviews. At the time of writing the study has recruited 60 patients. DISCUSSION: the feasibility outcomes will inform a definitive RCT to assess the clinical and cost-effectiveness of the augmented BAcPAc written self-help intervention to reduce depression and depressive relapse, and bring about improvements across a range of physical health outcomes. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN74390532, 26.03.2013.

BACKGROUND: the Sedentary Sphere is a method for the analysis, identification, and visual presentation of sedentary behaviors from a wrist-worn triaxial accelerometer. PURPOSE: This study aimed to introduce the concept of the Sedentary Sphere and to determine the accuracy of posture classification from wrist accelerometer data. METHODS: Three samples were used: 1) free living (n = 13, ages 20-60 yr); 2) laboratory based (n = 25, ages 30-65 yr); and 3) hospital inpatients (n = 10, ages 60-90 yr). All participants wore a GENEActiv on their wrist and activPAL on their thigh. The free-living sample wore an additional GENEActiv on the thigh and completed the Multimedia Activity Recall for Children and Adults. The laboratory-based sample wore the monitors while seated at a desk for 7 h, punctuated by 2 min of walking every 20 min. The free-living and inpatient samples wore the monitors for 24 h. Posture was classified from wrist-worn accelerometry using the Sedentary Sphere concept. RESULTS: Sitting time did not differ between the wrist GENEActiv and the activPAL in the free-living sample and was correlated in the three samples combined (rho = 0.9, P < 0.001), free-living and inpatient samples (r ≃ 0.8, P < 0.01). Mean intraindividual agreement was 85% ± 7%. In the laboratory-based and inpatient samples, sitting time was underestimated by the wrist GENEActiv by 30 min and 2 h relative to the activPAL, respectively (P < 0.05). Posture classification disagreed during reading while standing, cooking while standing, and brief periods during driving. Posture allocation validity was excellent when the GENEActiv was worn on the thigh, evidenced by the near-perfect agreement with the activPAL (96% ± 3%). CONCLUSIONS: the Sedentary Sphere enables determination of the most likely posture from the wrist-worn GENEActiv. Visualizing behaviors on the sphere displays the pattern of wrist movement and positions within that behavior.

BACKGROUND: the Sedentary Sphere is a method for the analysis, identification, and visual presentation of sedentary behaviors from a wrist-worn triaxial accelerometer. PURPOSE: This study aimed to introduce the concept of the Sedentary Sphere and to determine the accuracy of posture classification from wrist accelerometer data. METHODS: Three samples were used: 1) free living (n = 13, ages 20-60 yr); 2) laboratory based (n = 25, ages 30-65 yr); and 3) hospital inpatients (n = 10, ages 60-90 yr). All participants wore a GENEActiv on their wrist and activPAL on their thigh. The free-living sample wore an additional GENEActiv on the thigh and completed the Multimedia Activity Recall for Children and Adults. The laboratory-based sample wore the monitors while seated at a desk for 7 h, punctuated by 2 min of walking every 20 min. The free-living and inpatient samples wore the monitors for 24 h. Posture was classified from wrist-worn accelerometry using the Sedentary Sphere concept. RESULTS: Sitting time did not differ between the wrist GENEActiv and the activPAL in the free-living sample and was correlated in the three samples combined (rho = 0.9, P < 0.001), free-living and inpatient samples (r ? 0.8, P < 0.01). Mean intraindividual agreement was 85% ± 7%. In the laboratory-based and inpatient samples, sitting time was underestimated by the wrist GENEActiv by 30 min and 2 h relative to the activPAL, respectively (P < 0.05). Posture classification disagreed during reading while standing, cooking while standing, and brief periods during driving. Posture allocation validity was excellent when the GENEActiv was worn on the thigh, evidenced by the near-perfect agreement with the activPAL (96% ± 3%). CONCLUSIONS: the Sedentary Sphere enables determination of the most likely posture from the wrist-worn GENEActiv. Visualizing behaviors on the sphere displays the pattern of wrist movement and positions within that behavior. © 2014 by the American College of Sports Medicine.

Background: Interventions promoting physical activity by General Practitioners (GPs) lack a strong evidence base. Recruiting participants to trials in primary care is challenging. We investigated the feasibility of (i) delivering three interventions to promote physical activity in inactive participants and (ii) different methods of participant recruitment and randomised allocation.Methods: We recruited general practices from Devon, Bristol and Coventry. We used a 2-by-2 factorial design for participant recruitment and randomisation. Recruitment strategies were either opportunistic (approaching patients attending their GP surgery) or systematic (selecting patients from practice lists and approaching them by letter). Randomisation strategies were either individual or by practice cluster. Feasibility outcomes included time taken to recruit the target number of participants within each practice. Participants were randomly allocated to one of three interventions: (i) written advice (control); (ii) brief GP advice (written advice plus GP advice on physical activity), and (iii) brief GP advice plus a pedometer to self-monitor physical activity during the trial. Participants allocated to written advice or brief advice each received a sealed pedometer to record their physical activity, and were instructed not to unseal the pedometer before the scheduled day of data collection. Participant level outcomes were reported descriptively and included the mean number of pedometer steps over a 7-day period, and European Quality of Life (EuroQoL)-5 dimensions (EQ-5D) scores, recorded at 12 weeks' follow-up.Results: We recruited 24 practices (12 using each recruitment method; 18 randomising by cluster, 6 randomising by individual participant), encompassing 131 participants. Opportunistic recruitment was associated with less time to target recruitment compared with systematic (mean difference (days) -54.9, 95% confidence interval (CI) -103.6; -6.2) but with greater loss to follow up (28.8% versus. 6.9%; mean difference 21.9% (95% CI 9.6%; 34.1%)). There were differences in the socio-demographic characteristics of participants according to recruitment method. There was no clear pattern of change in participant level outcomes from baseline to 12 weeks across the three arms.Conclusions: Delivering and trialling GP-led interventions to promote physical activity is feasible, but trial design influences time to participant recruitment, participant withdrawal, and possibly, the socio-demographic characteristics of participants.Trial registration number: ISRCTN73725618. © 2014 Warren et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

OBJECTIVES: to examine the associations between volume and intensity of older peoples' physical activity, with their subsequent health service usage over the following four to five years. STUDY DESIGN: a prospective cohort design using baseline participant characteristics, objectively assessed physical activity and lower limb function provided by Project OPAL (Older People and Active Living). OPAL-PLUS provided data on numbers of primary care consultations, prescriptions, unplanned hospital admissions, and secondary care referrals, extracted from medical records for up to five years following the baseline OPAL data collection. PARTICIPANTS AND DATA COLLECTION: OPAL participants were a diverse sample of 240 older adults with a mean age of 78 years. They were recruited from 12 General Practitioner surgeries from low, middle, and high areas of deprivation in a city in the West of England. Primary care consultations, secondary care referrals, unplanned hospital admissions, number of prescriptions and new disease diagnoses were assessed for 213 (104 females) of the original 240 OPAL participants who had either consented to participate in OPAL-PLUS or already died during the follow-up period. RESULTS: in regression modelling, adjusted for socio-economic variables, existing disease, weight status, minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) per day predicted subsequent numbers of prescriptions. Steps taken per day and MVPA also predicted unplanned hospital admissions, although the strength of the effect was reduced when further adjustment was made for lower limb function. CONCLUSIONS: Community-based programs are needed which are successful in engaging older adults in their late 70s and 80s in more walking, MVPA and activity that helps them avoid loss of physical function. There is a potential for cost savings to health services through reduced reliance on prescriptions and fewer unplanned hospital admissions.

OBJECTIVES: to examine the associations between socioeconomic position (SEP) and multidomain self-reported and objectively-assessed sedentary time (ST). DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING: General population households in England. PARTICIPANTS: 2289 adults aged 16-96 years who participated in the 2008 Health Survey for England. OUTCOMES: Accelerometer-measured ST, and self-reported television time, non-television leisure-time sitting and occupational sitting/standing. We examined multivariable associations between household income, social class, education, area deprivation for each SEP indicator (including a 5-point composite SEP score computed by aggregating individual SEP indicators) and each ST indicator using generalised linear models. RESULTS: Accelerometry-measured total ST and occupational sitting/standing were positively associated with SEP score and most of its constituent SEP indicators, while television time was negatively associated with SEP score and education level. Area-level deprivation was largely unrelated to ST. Those in the lowest composite SEP group spent 64 (95% CIs 52 to 76) and 72 (48 to 98), fewer minutes/day in total ST and occupational sitting/standing compared to those in the top SEP group, and an additional 48 (35-60) min/day watching television (p

BACKGROUND: Walking for physical activity is associated with substantial health benefits for adults. Increasingly research has focused on associations between walking behaviours and neighbourhood environments including street characteristics such as pavement availability and aesthetics. Nevertheless, objective assessment of street-level data is challenging. This research investigates the reliability of a new street characteristic audit tool designed for use with Google Street View, and assesses levels of agreement between computer-based and on-site auditing. METHODS: the Forty Area STudy street VIEW (FASTVIEW) tool, a Google Street View based audit tool, was developed incorporating nine categories of street characteristics. Using the tool, desk-based audits were conducted by trained researchers across one large UK town during 2011. Both inter and intra-rater reliability were assessed. On-site street audits were also completed to test the criterion validity of the method. All reliability scores were assessed by percentage agreement and the kappa statistic. RESULTS: Within-rater agreement was high for each category of street characteristic (range: 66.7%-90.0%) and good to high between raters (range: 51.3%-89.1%). A high level of agreement was found between the Google Street View audits and those conducted in-person across the nine categories examined (range: 75.0%-96.7%). CONCLUSION: the audit tool was found to provide a reliable and valid measure of street characteristics. The use of Google Street View to capture street characteristic data is recommended as an efficient method that could substantially increase potential for large-scale objective data collection.

© 2013 the Cochrane Collaboration. This is the protocol for a review and there is no abstract. The objectives are as follows: Primary: to compare the effectiveness of face-to-face interventions for PA promotion in community dwelling adults (aged 16 years and above) with a control exposed to placebo, no and/or minimal intervention. The influence of delivering the intervention to a group versus individually versus mixed (combined group and individually) will also be assessed. Secondary: If sufficient data exists, the following secondary objectives will be explored: to assess how the professional delivering the intervention (for example health professional, exercise specialist) influences the effectiveness in changing PA; to assess how the intensity of the intervention delivery (for example frequency, duration of contact) influences the effectiveness in changing PA; to assess how the prescription of the intervention (for example duration, frequency, intensity) influences the effectiveness in changing PA.

BACKGROUND: Face-to-face interventions for promoting physical activity (PA) are continuing to be popular but their ability to achieve long term changes are unknown. OBJECTIVES: to compare the effectiveness of face-to-face interventions for PA promotion in community dwelling adults (aged 16 years and above) with a control exposed to placebo or no or minimal intervention. SEARCH METHODS: We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, and some other databases (from earliest dates available to October 2012). Reference lists of relevant articles were checked. No language restrictions were applied. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) that compared face-to-face PA interventions for community dwelling adults with a placebo or no or minimal intervention control group. We included studies if the principal component of the intervention was delivered using face-to-face methods. To assess behavioural change over time the included studies had a minimum of 12 months follow-up from the start of the intervention to the final results. We excluded studies that had more than a 20% loss to follow-up if they did not apply an intention-to-treat analysis. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: at least two authors independently assessed the quality of each study and extracted data. Non-English language papers were reviewed with the assistance of an interpreter who was an epidemiologist. Study authors were contacted for additional information where necessary. Standardised mean differences (SMDs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated for continuous measures of self-reported PA and cardio-respiratory fitness. For studies with dichotomous outcomes, odds ratios (ORs) and 95% CIs were calculated. MAIN RESULTS: a total of 10 studies recruiting 6292 apparently healthy adults met the inclusion criteria. All of the studies took place in high-income countries. The effect of interventions on self-reported PA at one year (eight studies; 6725 participants) was positive and moderate with significant heterogeneity (I² = 74%) (SMD 0.19; 95% CI 0.06 to 0.31; moderate quality evidence) but not sustained in three studies at 24 months (4235 participants) (SMD 0.18; 95% CI -0.10 to 0.46). The effect of interventions on cardiovascular fitness at one year (two studies; 349 participants) was positive and moderate with no significant heterogeneity in the observed effects (SMD 0.50; 95% CI 0.28 to 0.71; moderate quality evidence). Three studies (3277 participants) reported a positive effect on increasing PA levels when assessed as a dichotomous measure at 12 months, but this was not statistically significant (OR 1.52; 95% CI 0.88 to 2.61; high quality evidence). Although there were limited data, there was no evidence of an increased risk of adverse events (one study; 149 participants). Risk of bias was assessed as low (four studies; 4822 participants) or moderate (six studies; 1543 participants). Any conclusions drawn from this review require some caution given the significant heterogeneity in the observed effects. Despite this, there was some indication that the most effective interventions were those that offered both individual and group support for changing PA levels using a tailored approach. The long term impact, cost effectiveness and rates of adverse events for these interventions was not established because the majority of studies stopped after 12 months. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Although we found evidence to support the effectiveness of face-to-face interventions for promoting PA, at least at 12 months, the effectiveness of these interventions was not supported by high quality studies. Due to the clinical and statistical heterogeneity of the studies, only limited conclusions can be drawn about the effectiveness of individual components of the interventions. Future studies should provide greater detail of the components of interventions, and assess impact on quality of life, adverse events and economic data.

This is the protocol for a review and there is no abstract. The objectives are as follows: Primary: to compare the effectiveness of face-to-face versus remote and web 2.0 interventions for PA promotion in community dwelling adults (aged 16 years and above). The influence of delivering the intervention to a group versus individually versus mixed (combined group and individually) will also be assessed. Secondary: If sufficient data exists, the following secondary objectives will be explored: to assess how the professional delivering the intervention (for example health professional, exercise specialist) influences the effectiveness in changing PA; to assess how the intensity of the intervention delivery (for example frequency, duration of contact) influences the effectiveness in changing PA; to assess how the prescription of the intervention (for example duration, frequency, intensity) influences the effectiveness in changing PA.

BACKGROUND: Face-to-face interventions for promoting physical activity (PA) are continuing to be popular as remote and web 2.0 approaches rapidly emerge, but we are unsure which approach is more effective at achieving long term sustained change. OBJECTIVES: to compare the effectiveness of face-to-face versus remote and web 2.0 interventions for PA promotion in community dwelling adults (aged 16 years and above). SEARCH METHODS: We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, and some other databases (from earliest dates available to October 2012). Reference lists of relevant articles were checked. No language restrictions were applied. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised trials that compared face-to-face versus remote and web 2.0 PA interventions for community dwelling adults. We included studies if they compared an intervention that was principally delivered face-to-face to an intervention that had principally remote and web 2.0 methods. To assess behavioural change over time, the included studies had a minimum of 12 months follow-up from the start of the intervention to the final results. We excluded studies that had more than a 20% loss to follow-up if they did not apply an intention-to-treat analysis. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: at least two review authors independently assessed the quality of each study and extracted the data. Non-English language papers were reviewed with the assistance of an interpreter who was an epidemiologist. Study authors were contacted for additional information where necessary. Standardised mean differences (SMDs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated for continuous measures of cardio-respiratory fitness. MAIN RESULTS: One study recruiting 225 apparently healthy adults met the inclusion criteria. This study took place in a high-income country. From 27,299 hits, the full texts of 193 papers were retrieved for examination against the inclusion criteria. However, there was only one paper that met the inclusion criteria. This study reported the effect of a PA intervention on cardio-respiratory fitness. There were no reported data for PA, quality of life, or cost effectiveness. The difference between the remote and web 2.0 versus face-to-face arms was not significant (SMD -0.02; 95% CI -0.30 to 0.26; high quality evidence). The risk of bias in the included study was assessed as low, and there was no evidence of an increased risk of adverse events. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: There is insufficient evidence to assess whether face-to-face interventions or remote and web 2.0 approaches are more effective at promoting PA.

Objectives: the study aims to test the hypothesis that physical activity (PA) and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) are associated with cardiometabolic risk factors; and to test the hypothesis that CRF modifies (changes the direction and/or strength of) the associations between PA and cardiometabolic risk factors. Methods: PA and CRF were objectively measured in the 2008 Health Survey for England and the present study included 536 adults who completed at least 4. min of the eight-minute sub-maximal step test and wore an accelerometer for at least 10. h on at least four days. Linear regression models were fitted to examine the relationship between PA and cardiometabolic risk factors and between CRF and cardiometabolic risk factors. A test of interaction was performed to examine whether CRF modifies the associations between PA and cardiometabolic risk factors. Results: PA and CRF were associated with HDL cholesterol, the ratio of total to HDL cholesterol, glycated haemoglobin and BMI after adjustment for potential confounders. There was little evidence that CRF changed the direction or strength of associations between PA and cardiometabolic risk factors. Conclusions: PA and CRF are associated with cardiometabolic risk factors. A larger sample is required to determine if CRF modifies associations between PA and cardiometabolic risk factors. © 2013 Elsevier Inc.

OBJECTIVES: the study aims to test the hypothesis that physical activity (PA) and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) are associated with cardiometabolic risk factors; and to test the hypothesis that CRF modifies (changes the direction and/or strength of) the associations between PA and cardiometabolic risk factors. METHODS: PA and CRF were objectively measured in the 2008 Health Survey for England and the present study included 536 adults who completed at least 4 min of the eight-minute sub-maximal step test and wore an accelerometer for at least 10 h on at least four days. Linear regression models were fitted to examine the relationship between PA and cardiometabolic risk factors and between CRF and cardiometabolic risk factors. A test of interaction was performed to examine whether CRF modifies the associations between PA and cardiometabolic risk factors. RESULTS: PA and CRF were associated with HDL cholesterol, the ratio of total to HDL cholesterol, glycated haemoglobin and BMI after adjustment for potential confounders. There was little evidence that CRF changed the direction or strength of associations between PA and cardiometabolic risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: PA and CRF are associated with cardiometabolic risk factors. A larger sample is required to determine if CRF modifies associations between PA and cardiometabolic risk factors.

BACKGROUND: Despite the health risks, physical inactivity is common. Identifying the correlates of physical activity to inform the design of interventions to reduce the disease burden associated with physical inactivity is a public health imperative. Rural adults have a unique set of characteristics influencing their activity behaviour, and are typically understudied, especially in England. The aim of this study was to identify the personal, social, and environmental correlates of physical activity in adults living in rural villages. METHODS: the study used baseline data from 2415 adults (response rate: 37.7%) participating in the first time period of a stepped-wedge cluster randomised trial, conducted in 128 rural villages from south-west England. Data collected included demographic characteristics, social factors, perception of the local environment, village level factors (percentage male, mean age, population density, Index of Multiple Deprivation, and sport market segmentation), and physical activity behaviour. Random effects ("multilevel") logistic regression models were fitted to the binary outcome whether individuals met physical activity guidelines, and random effects linear regression models were fitted to the continuous outcome MET-minutes per week leisure time physical activity, using the personal, social, environmental, and village-level factors as predictors. RESULTS: the following factors both increased the odds of meeting the recommended activity guidelines and were associated with more leisure-time physical activity: being male (p = 0.002), in good health (p < 0.001), greater commitment to being more active (p = 0.002), favourable activity social norms (p = 0.004), greater physical activity habit (p < 0.001), and recent use of recreational facilities (p = 0.01). In addition, there was evidence (p < 0.05) that younger age, lower body mass index, having a physical occupation, dog ownership, inconvenience of public transport, and using recreational facilities outside the local village were associated with greater reported leisure-time physical activity. None of the village-level factors were associated with physical activity. CONCLUSIONS: This study adds to the current literature on the correlates of physical activity behaviour by focusing on a population exposed to unique environmental conditions. It highlights potentially important correlates of physical activity that could be the focus of interventions targeting rural populations, and demonstrates the need to examine rural adults separately from their urban counterparts.

This is the protocol for a review and there is no abstract. The objectives are as follows: Primary: to compare the effectiveness of remote and web 2.0 interventions for PA promotion in community dwelling adults (aged 16 years and above) with a control exposed to placebo, no and/or minimal intervention. The influence of delivering the intervention to a group versus individually versus mixed (combined group and individually) will also be assessed. Secondary: If sufficient data exists, the following secondary objectives will be explored: to assess how the professional delivering the intervention (for example health professional, exercise specialist) influences the effectiveness in changing PA; to assess how the intensity of the intervention delivery (for example frequency, duration of contact) influences the effectiveness in changing PA; to assess how the prescription of the intervention (for example duration, frequency, intensity) influences the effectiveness in changing PA.

BACKGROUND: Remote and web 2.0 interventions for promoting physical activity (PA) are becoming increasingly popular but their ability to achieve long term changes are unknown. OBJECTIVES: to compare the effectiveness of remote and web 2.0 interventions for PA promotion in community dwelling adults (aged 16 years and above) with a control group exposed to placebo or no or minimal intervention. SEARCH METHODS: We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, and some other databases (from earliest dates available to October 2012). Reference lists of relevant articles were checked. No language restrictions were applied. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) that compared remote and web 2.0 PA interventions for community dwelling adults with a placebo or no or minimal intervention control group. We included studies if the principal component of the intervention was delivered using remote or web 2.0 technologies (for example the internet, smart phones) or more traditional methods (for example telephone, mail-outs), or both. To assess behavioural change over time, the included studies had a minimum of 12 months follow-up from the start of the intervention to the final results. We excluded studies that had more than a 20% loss to follow-up if they did not apply an intention-to-treat analysis. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: at least two authors independently assessed the quality of each study and extracted the data. Non-English language papers were reviewed with the assistance of an interpreter who was an epidemiologist. Study authors were contacted for additional information where necessary. Standardised mean differences (SMDs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated for the continuous measures of self-reported PA and cardio-respiratory fitness. For studies with dichotomous outcomes, odds ratios and 95% CIs were calculated. MAIN RESULTS: a total of 11 studies recruiting 5862 apparently healthy adults met the inclusion criteria. All of the studies took place in high-income countries. The effect of the interventions on cardiovascular fitness at one year (two studies; 444 participants) was positive and moderate with significant heterogeneity of the observed effects (SMD 0.40; 95% CI 0.04 to 0.76; high quality evidence). The effect of the interventions on self-reported PA at one year (nine studies; 4547 participants) was positive and moderate (SMD 0.20; 95% CI 0.11 to 0.28; moderate quality evidence) with heterogeneity (I2 = 37%) in the observed effects. One study reported positive results at two years (SMD 0.20; 95% CI 0.08 to 0.32; moderate quality evidence). When studies were stratified by risk of bias, the studies at low risk of bias (eight studies; 3403 participants) had an increased effect (SMD 0.28; 95% CI 0.16 to 0.40; moderate quality evidence). The most effective interventions applied a tailored approach to the type of PA and used telephone contact to provide feedback and to support changes in PA levels. There was no evidence of an increased risk of adverse events (seven studies; 2892 participants). Risk of bias was assessed as low (eight studies; 3060 participants) or moderate (three studies; 2677 participants). There were no differences in effectiveness between studies using different types of professionals delivering the intervention (for example health professional, exercise specialist). There was no difference in pooled estimates between studies that generated the prescribed PA using an automated computer programme versus a human, nor between studies that used pedometers as part of their intervention compared to studies that did not. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: We found consistent evidence to support the effectiveness of remote and web 2.0 interventions for promoting PA. These interventions have positive, moderate sized effects on increasing self-reported PA and measured cardio-respiratory fitness, at least at 12 months. The effectiveness of these interventions was supported by moderate and high quality studies. However, there continues to be a paucity of cost effectiveness data and studies that include participants from varying socioeconomic or ethnic groups. To better understand the independent effect of individual programme components, longer term studies, with at least one year follow-up, are required.

Background: Prospective studies report associations between indicators of time spent sitting and obesity risk. Most studies use a single indicator of sedentary behavior and are unable to clearly identify whether sedentary behavior is a cause or a consequence of obesity. Purpose: to investigate cross-sectional and prospective associations between multiple sitting time indicators and obesity and examine the possibility of reverse causality. Methods: Using data from the Whitehall II cohort, multiple logistic models were fitted to examine associations between prevalent obesity (BMI ≥30) at Phase 5 (1997-1999), and incident obesity between Phases 5 and 7 (2003-2004) across four levels of five sitting exposures (work sitting, TV viewing, non-TV leisure-time sitting, leisure-time sitting, and total sitting). Using obesity data from three prior phases (1985-1988, 1991-1993; and recalled weight at age 25 years), linear regression models were fitted to examine the association between prior obesity and sitting time at Phase 5. Analyses were conducted in 2012. Results: None of the sitting exposures were associated with obesity either cross-sectionally or prospectively. Obesity at one previous measurement phase was associated with a 2.43-hour/week (95% CI=0.07, 4.78) increase in TV viewing; obesity at three previous phases was associated with a 7.42-hour/week (95% CI=2.7, 12.46) increase in TV-viewing hours/week at Phase 5. Conclusions: Sitting time was not associated with obesity cross-sectionally or prospectively. Prior obesity was prospectively associated with time spent watching TV per week but not other types of sitting. © 2013 American Journal of Preventive Medicine.

BACKGROUND: Associations between socioeconomic position (SEP) and sedentary behaviour in children are unclear. Existing studies have used aggregate measures of weekly sedentary time that could mask important differences in the relationship between SEP and sedentary time at different times of the day or between weekdays and weekend days. These studies have also employed a variety of measures of SEP which may be differentially associated with sedentary time. This paper examines associations of multiple indicators of SEP and accelerometer-measured, temporally specific, sedentary time in school children. METHODS: Between 2006 and 2007 sedentary time data (minutes spent below 100 accelerometer counts per minute) for weekdays before-school (7.00-8.59AM), during school-time (9.00AM-2.59PM) and after-school (3.00PM-11.00PM), and weekend days were recorded for 629 10-11 year old children using accelerometers. Ordinary least squares regression was used to examine associations with 5 indicators of SEP (area deprivation, annual household income, car ownership, parental education and access to a private garden). Covariates were; gender, BMI, minutes of daylight, accelerometer wear time and school travel method. Analyses were conducted in 2012. RESULTS: Following adjustments for covariates, having a parent educated to university degree level was associated with more minutes of school (5.87 [95% CI 1.72, 10.04]) and after-school (6.04 [95% CI 0.08, 12.16]) sedentary time. Quartiles of area deprivation (most to least deprived) were positively associated with after-school (Q2: 4.30 [95% CI -6.09, 14.70]; Q3: 10.77 [95% CI 0.47, 21.06]; Q4: 12.74 [95% CI 2.65, 22.84]; P(trend) = 0.04) and weekend (Q2: 26.34 [95% CI 10.16, 42.53]; Q3: 33.28 [95% CI 16.92, 49.65]; Q4: 29.90 [95% CI 14.20, 45.60]; P(trend) = 0.002) sedentary time. Having a garden was associated with less sedentary time after-school (-14.39 [95% CI -25.14, -3.64]) and at weekends (-27.44 [95% CI -43.11, -11.78]). CONCLUSIONS: Associations between SEP and children's sedentary-time varied by SEP indicator and time of day. This highlights the importance of measuring multiple indicators of SEP and examining context specific sedentary time in children in order to fully understand how SEP influences this behaviour. Further research should combine self-report and objective data to examine associations with specific sedentary behaviours in the contexts within which they occur, as well as total sedentary time.

BACKGROUND: over the last three decades there has been a substantial increase in the proportion of children who are overweight or obese. The Healthy Lifestyles Programme (HeLP) is a novel school-based intervention, using highly interactive and creative delivery methods to prevent obesity in children. METHODS/DESIGN: We describe a cluster randomised controlled trial to evaluate the effectiveness and cost effectiveness of HeLP. The intervention has been developed using intervention mapping (involving extensive stakeholder involvement) and has been guided by the Information, Motivation, Behavioural Skills model. HeLP includes creating a receptive environment, drama activities, goal setting and reinforcement activities and runs over three school terms. Piloting showed that 9 to 10 year olds were the most receptive and participative. This study aims to recruit 1,300 children from 32 schools (over half of which will have ≥19% of pupils eligible for free school meals) from the southwest of England. Participating schools will be randomised to intervention or control groups with baseline measures taken prior to randomisation. The primary outcome is change in body mass index standard deviation score (BMI SDS) at 24 months post baseline. Secondary outcomes include, waist circumference and percent body fat SDS and proportion of children classified as overweight or obese at 18 and 24 months and objectively measured physical activity and food intake at 18 months. Between-group comparisons will be made using random effects regression analysis taking into account the hierarchical nature of the study design. An economic evaluation will estimate the incremental cost-effectiveness of HeLP, compared to control, from the perspective of the National Health Service (NHS)/third party payer. An in-depth process evaluation will provide insight into how HeLP works, and whether there is any differential uptake or engagement with the programme. DISCUSSION: the results of the trial will provide evidence on the effectiveness and cost effectiveness of the Healthy Lifestyles Programme in affecting the weight status of children. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN15811706.

The objective was to test the hypothesis that traditional and novel cardiometabolic risk factors would be significantly different in groups of men of different fatness and fitness. Total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose, insulin, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, γ-glutamyltransferase, leptin, adiponectin, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6, interleukin-10, fibrinogen, and insulin resistance were assessed in 183 nonsmoking white men aged 35 to 53 years, including 62 who were slim and fit (waist girth ≤90 cm and maximal oxygen consumption [VO(2)max] above average), 24 who were slim and unfit (waist girth ≤90 cm and VO(2)max average or below), 39 who were fat and fit (waist girth ≥100 cm and VO(2)max above average), and 19 who were fat and unfit (waist girth ≥100 cm and VO(2)max average or below). Seventy-six percent gave blood on 2 occasions, and the average of 1 or 2 blood tests was used in statistical tests. Waist girth (centimeters) and fitness (milliliters of oxygen per kilogram of fat-free mass) were associated with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, leptin, and insulin resistance after adjustment for age, saturated fat intake, and total energy intake. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, alanine aminotransferase, and insulin resistance were significantly different in men who were fat and fit and those who were fat and unfit. These data suggest that differences in lipid and lipoprotein concentrations, liver function, and insulin resistance may explain why the risks of chronic disease are lower in men who are fat and fit than those who are fat and unfit.

Background: the effectiveness of exercise referral schemes (ERS) is influenced by uptake and adherence to the scheme. The identification of factors influencing low uptake and adherence could lead to the refinement of schemes to optimise investment. Objectives: to quantify the levels of ERS uptake and adherence and to identify factors predictive of uptake and adherence. Methods: a systematic review and meta-analysis was undertaken. MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library, ISI WOS, SPORTDiscus and ongoing trial registries were searched (to October 2009) and included study references were checked. Included studies were required to report at least one of the following: (1) a numerical measure of ERS uptake or adherence and (2) an estimate of the statistical association between participant demographic or psychosocial factors (eg, level of motivation, self-efficacy) or programme factors and uptake or adherence to ERS. Results: Twenty studies met the inclusion criteria, six randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and 14 observational studies. The pooled level of uptake in ERS was 66% (95% CI 57% to 75%) across the observational studies and 81% (95% CI 68% to 94%) across the RCTs. The pooled level of ERS adherence was 49% (95% CI 40% to 59%) across the observational studies and 43% (95% CI 32% to 54%) across the RCTs. Few studies considered anything other than gender and age. Women were more likely to begin an ERS but were less likely to adhere to it than men. Older people were more likely to begin and adhere to an ERS. Limitations: Substantial heterogeneity was evident across the ERS studies. Without standardised definitions, the heterogeneity may have been reflective of differences in methods of defining uptake and adherence across studies. Conclusions: to enhance our understanding of the variation in uptake and adherence across ERS and how these variations might affect physical activity outcomes, future trials need to use quantitative and qualitative methods.

BACKGROUND: the effectiveness of exercise referral schemes (ERS) is influenced by uptake and adherence to the scheme. The identification of factors influencing low uptake and adherence could lead to the refinement of schemes to optimise investment. OBJECTIVES: to quantify the levels of ERS uptake and adherence and to identify factors predictive of uptake and adherence. METHODS: a systematic review and meta-analysis was undertaken. MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library, ISI WOS, SPORTDiscus and ongoing trial registries were searched (to October 2009) and included study references were checked. Included studies were required to report at least one of the following: (1) a numerical measure of ERS uptake or adherence and (2) an estimate of the statistical association between participant demographic or psychosocial factors (eg, level of motivation, self-efficacy) or programme factors and uptake or adherence to ERS. RESULTS: Twenty studies met the inclusion criteria, six randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and 14 observational studies. The pooled level of uptake in ERS was 66% (95% CI 57% to 75%) across the observational studies and 81% (95% CI 68% to 94%) across the RCTs. The pooled level of ERS adherence was 49% (95% CI 40% to 59%) across the observational studies and 43% (95% CI 32% to 54%) across the RCTs. Few studies considered anything other than gender and age. Women were more likely to begin an ERS but were less likely to adhere to it than men. Older people were more likely to begin and adhere to an ERS. LIMITATIONS: Substantial heterogeneity was evident across the ERS studies. Without standardised definitions, the heterogeneity may have been reflective of differences in methods of defining uptake and adherence across studies. CONCLUSIONS: to enhance our understanding of the variation in uptake and adherence across ERS and how these variations might affect physical activity outcomes, future trials need to use quantitative and qualitative methods.

BACKGROUND: Although physical inactivity has been linked with numerous chronic health conditions and overall mortality, the majority of English adults report doing insufficient physical activity. To increase population physical activity levels, researchers have called for more community-level interventions. To evaluate these complex public health interventions, innovative study designs are required. This study protocol describes Devon Active Villages, a community-level intervention providing physical activity opportunities to 128 rural villages in southwest England, and the methods used to evaluate its effectiveness in increasing physical activity levels. METHODS/DESIGN: a stepped wedge cluster randomised trial will be used to evaluate whether Devon Active Villages leads to increased physical activity levels in rural communities. Community engagement will help tailor activity programmes for each village; communities will then be supported for a further twelve months. The intervention will be delivered over four periods, each lasting twelve weeks. Data collection consists of a postal survey of a random sample of adults aged 18 years and over, at baseline and after each of the four intervention periods. The questionnaire includes questions on participant demographics, physical activity behaviour, local environment characteristics, awareness of local activity programmes, and psychosocial factors. Based on detecting an increase in the proportion of people who meet physical activity guidelines (from 25% to 30%), at least ten respondents are needed from each of the 128 villages at each stage (80% power at the 5% level of significance). Anticipating a 20% response rate, 6,400 questionnaires will be sent out at each stage (i.e. 50 surveys to each village). Using data from all five periods, a comparison of study outcomes between intervention and control arms will be performed, allowing for time period (as a fixed effect) and the random effect induced by correlation of outcomes (clustering) within villages. DISCUSSION: This paper describes the use of a stepped wedge cluster randomised trial to evaluate a complex, community-level physical activity intervention in an under-studied population of adults in rural communities in southwest England. The study addresses gaps in the current literature by providing new insights into physical activity levels in this population. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN37321160.

Objective: to assess the impact of exercise referral schemes on physical activity and health outcomes. Design: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Data sources: Medline, Embase, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library, ISI Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, and ongoing trial registries up to October 2009. We also checked study references. Study selection: Design: randomised controlled trials or non-randomised controlled (cluster or individual) studies published in peer review journals. Population: sedentary individuals with or without medical diagnosis. Exercise referral schemes defined as: clear referrals by primary care professionals to third party service providers to increase physical activity or exercise, physical activity or exercise programmes tailored to individuals, and initial assessment and monitoring throughout programmes. Comparators: usual care, no intervention, or alternative exercise referral schemes. Results: Eight randomised controlled trials met the inclusion criteria, comparing exercise referral schemes with usual care (six trials), alternative physical activity intervention (two), and an exercise referral scheme plus a self determination theory intervention (one). Compared with usual care, follow-up data for exercise referral schemes showed an increased number of participants who achieved 90-150 minutes of physical activity of at least moderate intensity per week (pooled relative risk 1.16, 95% confidence intervals 1.03 to 1.30) and a reduced level of depression (pooled standardised mean difference -0.82, -1.28 to -0.35). Evidence of a between group difference in physical activity of moderate or vigorous intensity or in other health outcomes was inconsistent at follow-up. We did not find any difference in outcomes between exercise referral schemes and the other two comparator groups. None of the included trials separately reported outcomes in individuals with specific medical diagnoses. Substantial heterogeneity in the quality and nature of the exercise referral schemes across studies might have contributed to the inconsistency in outcome findings. Conclusions: Considerable uncertainty remains as to the effectiveness of exercise referral schemes for increasing physical activity, fitness, or health indicators, or whether they are an efficient use of resources for sedentary people with or without a medical diagnosis.

OBJECTIVE: to assess the impact of exercise referral schemes on physical activity and health outcomes. Design Systematic review and meta-analysis. DATA SOURCES: Medline, Embase, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library, ISI Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, and ongoing trial registries up to October 2009. We also checked study references. Study selection Design: randomised controlled trials or non-randomised controlled (cluster or individual) studies published in peer review journals. POPULATION: sedentary individuals with or without medical diagnosis. Exercise referral schemes defined as: clear referrals by primary care professionals to third party service providers to increase physical activity or exercise, physical activity or exercise programmes tailored to individuals, and initial assessment and monitoring throughout programmes. Comparators: usual care, no intervention, or alternative exercise referral schemes. RESULTS: Eight randomised controlled trials met the inclusion criteria, comparing exercise referral schemes with usual care (six trials), alternative physical activity intervention (two), and an exercise referral scheme plus a self determination theory intervention (one). Compared with usual care, follow-up data for exercise referral schemes showed an increased number of participants who achieved 90-150 minutes of physical activity of at least moderate intensity per week (pooled relative risk 1.16, 95% confidence intervals 1.03 to 1.30) and a reduced level of depression (pooled standardised mean difference -0.82, -1.28 to -0.35). Evidence of a between group difference in physical activity of moderate or vigorous intensity or in other health outcomes was inconsistent at follow-up. We did not find any difference in outcomes between exercise referral schemes and the other two comparator groups. None of the included trials separately reported outcomes in individuals with specific medical diagnoses. Substantial heterogeneity in the quality and nature of the exercise referral schemes across studies might have contributed to the inconsistency in outcome findings. Conclusions Considerable uncertainty remains as to the effectiveness of exercise referral schemes for increasing physical activity, fitness, or health indicators, or whether they are an efficient use of resources for sedentary people with or without a medical diagnosis.

BACKGROUND: a key public health objective is increasing health-enhancing physical activity (PA) for older adults (OAs). Daily trip frequency is independently associated with objectively assessed PA volumes (OAs). Little is known about correlates and these trips' transport mode, and how these elements relate to PA. PURPOSE: to describe the frequency, purpose, and travel mode of daily trips in OAs, and their association with participant characteristics and objectively-assessed PA. METHODS: Participants (n = 214, aged 78.1 SD 5.7 years), completed a seven-day trips log recording daily-trip frequency, purpose and transport mode. Concurrently participants wore an accelerometer which provided mean daily steps (steps·d-1), and minutes of moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA·d-1). Participants' physical function (PF) was estimated and demographic, height and weight data obtained. RESULTS: Trip frequency was associated with gender, age, physical function, walking-aid use, educational attainment, number of amenities within walking distance and cars in the household. Participants reported 9.6 (SD 4.2) trips per week (trips·wk-1). Most trips (61%) were by car (driver 44%, passenger 17%), 30% walking or cycling (active) and 9% public transport/other. Driving trips·wk-1 were more common in participants who were males (5.3 SD 3.6), well-educated (5.0 SD 4.3), high functioning (5.1 SD 4.6), younger (5.6 SD 4.9), affluent area residents (5.1 SD 4.2) and accessing > one car (7.2 SD 4.7). Active trips·wk-1 were more frequent in participants who were males (3.4 SD 3.6), normal weight (3.2 SD 3.4), not requiring walking aids (3.5 SD 3.3), well-educated (3.7 SD 0.7), from less deprived neighbourhoods (3.9 SD 3.9) and with ≥ 8 amenities nearby (4.4 SD 3.8).Public transport, and active trip frequency, were significantly associated with steps·d-1 (p < 0.001), even after adjustment for other trip modes and potential confounders. Public transport, active, or car driving trips were independently associated with minutes MVPA·d-1 (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Daily trips are associated with objectively-measured PA as indicated by daily MVPA and steps. Public transport and active trips are associated with greater PA than those by car, especially as a car passenger. Strategies encouraging increased trips, particularly active or public transport trips, in OAs can potentially increase their PA and benefit public health.

The benefits of regular physical activity for older adults are now well-established but this group remain the least active sector of the population. In this paper, the association between levels of neighbourhood deprivation and physical activity was assessed. A sample of 125 males with a mean age of 77.5 (±5.6) years, and 115 females with a mean age of age 78.6 (±8.6) underwent 7-day accelerometry, a physical performance battery, and completed a daily journeys log. Univariate associations between physical activity parameters and level of deprivation of neighbourhood were extinguished in regression models controlling for age, gender, and level of educational attainment. Age, gender, educational attainment, body mass index, physical function, and frequency of journeys from the home explained between 50% and 54% of variance in activity parameters. These results suggest the importance of strategies to help older adults maintain physical function, healthy weight, and remain active in their communities.

BACKGROUND: There are many health and social benefits of physical activity (PA) for older adults, but little is known about their activity patterns. PURPOSE: the purpose of this study was to objectively assess the PA patterns of older adults and the lifestyle and demographic factors associated with PA. METHODS: Participants (N = 230, aged 78.1 yr) recruited from medical practices (between 2007 and 2008) completed journey logs and wore accelerometers for 7 d. Mean daily steps, counts per minute (CPM), minutes of sedentary, light, or moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA), and frequency of journeys were analyzed (in 2009). RESULTS: Younger participants (age = 70-74.9 yr) were significantly (P < 0.001) more active (5660.8 steps per day) than older participants aged 80+ yr (3409.6 steps per day). Men performed significantly (P = 0.035) more minutes MVPA than women (23.1 vs 13.8 min MVPA per day). Normal weight participants were significantly (P < 0.05) more active (5368.9 steps per day) than overweight (4532.7 steps per day) and obese (3251.4 steps per day) groups. Those performing many journeys (>11.6 journeys per week) were significantly (P < 0.001) more active (5838.2 steps per day) than those performing few (

BACKGROUND: Exercise referral schemes (ERS) aim to identify inactive adults in the primary-care setting. The GP or health-care professional then refers the patient to a third-party service, with this service taking responsibility for prescribing and monitoring an exercise programme tailored to the needs of the individual. OBJECTIVE: to assess the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of ERS for people with a diagnosed medical condition known to benefit from physical activity (PA). The scope of this report was broadened to consider individuals without a diagnosed condition who are sedentary. DATA SOURCES: MEDLINE; EMBASE; PsycINFO; the Cochrane Library, ISI Web of Science; SPORTDiscus and ongoing trial registries were searched (from 1990 to October 2009) and included study references were checked. METHODS: Systematic reviews: the effectiveness of ERS, predictors of ERS uptake and adherence, and the cost-effectiveness of ERS; and the development of a decision-analytic economic model to assess cost-effectiveness of ERS. RESULTS: Seven randomised controlled trials (UK, n = 5; non-UK, n = 2) met the effectiveness inclusion criteria, five comparing ERS with usual care, two compared ERS with an alternative PA intervention, and one to an ERS plus a self-determination theory (SDT) intervention. In intention-to-treat analysis, compared with usual care, there was weak evidence of an increase in the number of ERS participants who achieved a self-reported 90-150 minutes of at least moderate-intensity PA per week at 6-12 months' follow-up [pooled relative risk (RR) 1.11, 95% confidence interval 0.99 to 1.25]. There was no consistent evidence of a difference between ERS and usual care in the duration of moderate/vigorous intensity and total PA or other outcomes, for example physical fitness, serum lipids, health-related quality of life (HRQoL). There was no between-group difference in outcomes between ERS and alternative PA interventions or ERS plus a SDT intervention. None of the included trials separately reported outcomes in individuals with medical diagnoses. Fourteen observational studies and five randomised controlled trials provided a numerical assessment of ERS uptake and adherence (UK, n = 16; non-UK, n = 3). Women and older people were more likely to take up ERS but women, when compared with men, were less likely to adhere. The four previous economic evaluations identified suggest ERS to be a cost-effective intervention. Indicative incremental cost per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) estimates for ERS for various scenarios were based on a de novo model-based economic evaluation. Compared with usual care, the mean incremental cost for ERS was £169 and the mean incremental QALY was 0.008, with the base-case incremental cost-effectiveness ratio at £20,876 per QALY in sedentary people without a medical condition and a cost per QALY of £14,618 in sedentary obese individuals, £12,834 in sedentary hypertensive patients, and £8414 for sedentary individuals with depression. Estimates of cost-effectiveness were highly sensitive to plausible variations in the RR for change in PA and cost of ERS. LIMITATIONS: We found very limited evidence of the effectiveness of ERS. The estimates of the cost-effectiveness of ERS are based on a simple analytical framework. The economic evaluation reports small differences in costs and effects, and findings highlight the wide range of uncertainty associated with the estimates of effectiveness and the impact of effectiveness on HRQoL. No data were identified as part of the effectiveness review to allow for adjustment of the effect of ERS in different populations. CONCLUSIONS: There remains considerable uncertainty as to the effectiveness of ERS for increasing activity, fitness or health indicators or whether they are an efficient use of resources in sedentary people without a medical diagnosis. We failed to identify any trial-based evidence of the effectiveness of ERS in those with a medical diagnosis. Future work should include randomised controlled trials assessing the cinical effectiveness and cost-effectivenesss of ERS in disease groups that may benefit from PA. FUNDING: the National Institute for Health Research Health Technology Assessment programme.

BACKGROUND: Exercise referral schemes (ERS) aim to identify inactive adults in the primary care setting. The primary care professional refers the patient to a third party service, with this service taking responsibility for prescribing and monitoring an exercise programme tailored to the needs of the patient. This paper examines the cost-effectiveness of ERS in promoting physical activity compared with usual care in primary care setting. METHODS: a decision analytic model was developed to estimate the cost-effectiveness of ERS from a UK NHS perspective. The costs and outcomes of ERS were modelled over the patient's lifetime. Data were derived from a systematic review of the literature on the clinical and cost-effectiveness of ERS, and on parameter inputs in the modelling framework. Outcomes were expressed as incremental cost per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY). Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses investigated the impact of varying ERS cost and effectiveness assumptions. Sub-group analyses explored the cost-effectiveness of ERS in sedentary people with an underlying condition. RESULTS: Compared with usual care, the mean incremental lifetime cost per patient for ERS was £169 and the mean incremental QALY was 0.008, generating a base-case incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) for ERS at £20,876 per QALY in sedentary individuals without a diagnosed medical condition. There was a 51% probability that ERS was cost-effective at £20,000 per QALY and 88% probability that ERS was cost-effective at £30,000 per QALY. In sub-group analyses, cost per QALY for ERS in sedentary obese individuals was £14,618, and in sedentary hypertensives and sedentary individuals with depression the estimated cost per QALY was £12,834 and £8,414 respectively. Incremental lifetime costs and benefits associated with ERS were small, reflecting the preventative public health context of the intervention, with this resulting in estimates of cost-effectiveness that are sensitive to variations in the relative risk of becoming physically active and cost of ERS. CONCLUSIONS: ERS is associated with modest increase in lifetime costs and benefits. The cost-effectiveness of ERS is highly sensitive to small changes in the effectiveness and cost of ERS and is subject to some significant uncertainty mainly due to limitations in the clinical effectiveness evidence base.

BACKGROUND: Walking to school is associated with higher levels of physical activity, but the contribution of the journey itself to physical activity before school is unknown. PURPOSE: This study combined accelerometer and GPS data to investigate the level and location of physical activity in children walking to school. METHODS: Participants were 137 children (aged 11.3 + or - 0.3 years) from London, England, measured in June-July 2006. Physical activity was measured by accelerometry, and location was determined with a GPS receiver. Travel mode was self-reported. Accelerometer and GPS data were time-matched to provide activity level and location for each 10-second epoch where both were available. Journeys were mapped in a GIS. RESULTS: Mean accelerometer counts per minute before school (8:00 am to 9:00 am) were 43% higher in those who walked to school than those traveling by car (878.8 + or - 387.6 vs 608.7 + or - 264.1 counts per minute [cpm], p

BACKGROUND: Observational studies have shown a positive association between time outdoors and physical activity in children. Time outdoors may be a feasible intervention target to increase the physical activity of youth, but methods are required to accurately measure time spent outdoors in a range of locations and over a sustained period. The Global Positioning System (GPS) provides precise location data and can be used to identify when an individual is outdoors. The aim of this study was to investigate whether GPS data recorded outdoors were associated with objectively measured physical activity. METHODS: Participants were 1010 children (11.0 +/- 0.4 years) recruited from 23 urban primary schools in South West England, measured between September 2006 and July 2008. Physical activity was measured by accelerometry (Actigraph GT1M) and children wore a GPS receiver (Garmin Foretrex 201) after school on four weekdays to record time outdoors. Accelerometer and GPS data were recorded at 10 second epochs and were combined to describe patterns of physical activity when both a GPS and accelerometer record were present (outdoors) and when there was accelerometer data only (indoors). ANOVA was used to investigate gender and seasonal differences in the patterns of outdoor and indoor physical activity, and linear regression was used to examine the cross-sectional associations between GPS-measured time outdoors and physical activity. RESULTS: GPS-measured time outdoors was a significant independent predictor of children's physical activity after adjustment for potential confounding factors. Physical activity was more than 2.5 fold higher outdoors than indoors (1345.8 +/- 907.3 vs 508.9 +/- 282.9 counts per minute; F = 783.2, p <. 001). Overall, children recorded 41.7 +/- 46.1 minutes outdoors between 3.30 pm and 8.30 pm, with more time spent outdoors in the summer months (p <. 001). There was no gender difference in time spent outdoors. Physical activity outdoors was higher in the summer than the winter (p <. 001), whilst there was no seasonal variation in physical activity indoors. CONCLUSIONS: Duration of GPS recording is positively associated with objectively measured physical activity and is sensitive to seasonal differences. Minute by minute patterning of GPS and physical activity data is feasible and may be a useful tool to investigate environmental influences on children's physical activity and to identify opportunities for intervention.

This study examines the association between objectively measured access to green space, frequency of green space use, physical activity, and the probability of being overweight or obese in the city of Bristol, England. Data from the 2005 Bristol Quality of Life in your Neighbourhood survey for 6821 adults were combined with a comprehensive GIS database of neighbourhood and green space characteristics. A range of green space accessibility measures were computed. Associations between accessibility and the odds of respondents achieving a recommended 30min or more of moderate activity five times a week, or being overweight or obese, were examined using logistic regression. Results showed that the reported frequency of green space use declined with increasing distance. The study also found that respondents living closest to the type of green space classified as a Formal park were more likely to achieve the physical activity recommendation and less likely to be overweight or obese. The association with physical activity, but not with overweight or obesity, remained after adjustment for respondent characteristics, area deprivation, and a range of characteristics of the neighbourhood environment. The findings suggest that the provision of good access to green spaces in urban areas may help promote population physical activity.

OBJECTIVE: the school-setting is a potentially important environment for influencing children's physical activity. However limited research has focused on whether children's school-time physical activity is associated with the school they attend. This paper investigates the school effect on children's physical activity. METHOD: Participants were 1307 pupils aged 10-11 years recruited from 23 primary schools in Bristol, UK during 2006-2008. Multilevel modelling (MLM) (MLwin 2.02) was used to asses between school differences in children's physical activity, measured using accelerometry (ActiGraph GT1M), adjusting for both individual and school variables. RESULTS: a significant school effect (p=0.001) was found accounting for 14.5% of the total variance in physical activity. Boys were significantly more active than girls (p

OBJECTIVES: to understand the patterning of greenspace provision and use by area deprivation, and determine how deprivation moderates relationships with physical activity. METHODS: the responses obtained from 6821 respondents to the 2005 'The Quality of Life in your Neighbourhood Survey' undertaken in Bristol, England, were combined with objective measures of access to greenspaces. Area deprivation was determined using the Index of Multiple Deprivation. Descriptive analyses examined how mean distance, perceived greenspace access and safety, visit frequency, and physical activity varied by deprivation quartile. Logistic regression models examined how relationships were moderated by deprivation. RESULTS: Respondents in more deprived areas lived closer to greenspaces, but reported poorer perceived accessibility, poorer safety, and less frequent use. Frequency of use declined with distance but only in the most affluent areas. Relationships between physical activity and perceived accessibility, safety, and visit frequency were moderated by deprivation. CONCLUSIONS: the accessibility of greenspaces was better in more deprived areas but those residents had more negative perceptions and were less likely to use the greenspaces. Interventions may be most effective if they target the perceptions and needs of residents of deprived neighbourhoods.

BACKGROUND: Children's independent mobility has fallen in recent years and may in part explain reported declines in physical activity in young people. This cross-sectional study investigated whether independent mobility in boys and girls was related to objectively measured physical activity. METHODS: Thirteen hundred and seven 10-11 year old boys and girls from 23 schools in a large UK city took part. Measures included objectively recorded physical activity (accelerometer (Actigraph GT1M)), height (m) and weight (kg), a newly developed scale for local (Local-IM) and area independent mobility (Area-IM), minutes of daylight after school, level of neighbourhood deprivation and pubertal status. RESULTS: Boys had greater Local-IM, Area-IM and physical activity (average weekday and weekend counts per minute) compared to girls. In linear regression analyses (adjusting for minutes of daylight after school, neighbourhood deprivation, pubertal status and body mass index) higher scores for Local-IM and Area-IM were significantly (p < 0.01) related to higher levels of physical activity on weekdays for boys and girls. For weekend physical activity, only Local-IM in girls remained significant (p < 0.05) in the model. CONCLUSION: Independent mobility appears to be an important independent correlate of weekday physical activity for both boys and girls.

BACKGROUND: Physical activity has been positively associated with a range of objectively measured environmental variables. We explored the relationship of walking and other categories of physical activity with objectively measured activity specific environmental variables in a U.K. population. METHODS: We used a geographical information system (GIS) and gender specific multivariate models to relate 13,927 participants' reported levels of physical activity with a range of measures of the environment. RESULTS: Access to green space and area levels of crime were not associated with walking for recreation. Distance to facilities had either no or only a small effect on the uptake of different activities. Odds ratios of cycling for leisure dropped as local traffic density increased for both genders. Compared with the lowest quartile for traffic density the likelihood of reporting any cycling for leisure was OR 0.42, (95% CI 0.32 to 0.52, P <. 001) for women and OR 0.41, (95% CI 0.33 to 0.50, P <. 001) for men in the highest quartile. CONCLUSIONS: We were unable to reproduce results observed in previous studies. Future research should use large representative population samples from multiple areas to maximize environmental variability and if feasible use both objective and subjective measures of physical activity and the environment.

BACKGROUND: Sedentary behaviour (sitting) is detrimental to health, independently of participation in physical activity. Socioeconomic position (SEP) is known to relate strongly to physical activity participation but we know very little about how SEP relates to sedentary behaviour. This study aimed to assess the relationships between SEP, neighbourhood deprivation and an index of sedentary time. METHODS: Cross-sectional study of a representative sample of 7940 Scottish adults who participated in the 2003 Scottish Health Survey, which collected information on SEP (household income, social class and education), neighbourhood deprivation (Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation), television and other screen-based entertainment time, and physical activity. RESULTS: the three indicators of SEP and deprivation index were independently of each other associated with daily times of television and other screen-based entertainment, even after adjustment for occupational and leisure-time physical activity, health status, smoking, alcohol drinking, car ownership and body mass index: income p = 0.002; social class p

OBJECTIVE: to examine associations between household income, access to sports facilities and gyms, and physical activity in an English city. METHOD: a cross sectional geographical study was conducted in six neighbourhoods in the city of Norwich in August and September 2004. Participants were (n=401) adults who received, completed, and returned questionnaires. Road distances to facilities were calculated using Geographical Information System. RESULTS: for all facility types except gyms, mean income was lowest amongst those living farthest away. Compared to those with the lowest incomes, the most affluent participants lived on average just over 0.5 km closer to a facility of any type, 1 km closer to a sports facility but 900 m farther from a gym (all p

OBJECTIVE: to assess the association between residential area-level deprivation, individual life-course socioeconomic position and adult levels of physical activity in older British women. METHODS: a cross-sectional study of 4286 British women aged 60-79 years at baseline, who were randomly selected from general practitioner lists in 23 British towns between April 1999 and March 2001 (the British Women's Heart and Health Study). RESULTS: all three of childhood socioeconomic position, adult socioeconomic position and area of residence (in adulthood) deprivation were independently (of each other and potential confounders) associated with physical activity. There was a cumulative effect of life-course socioeconomic position on physical activity, with the proportion who undertook no moderate or vigorous activity per week increasing linearly with each additional indicator of life-course socioeconomic position (p

BACKGROUND: Public health recommendations emphasize regular participation in moderate intensity physical activity (at least 5 days per week, 30 minutes or more per day), including domestic activities (e.g. heavy housework). The contribution of domestic activities in improving cardiovascular disease risk remains unclear. This cross-sectional study aimed at determining the independent associations of domestic activity and other activity types with multiple cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors (resting pulse rate, obesity, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, blood pressure, C-reactive protein). METHODS: the sample comprised of 14,836 adults (ages 16 years and over) living in households in England in 2003. Interviews assessed participation in at least moderate intensity physical activity (domestic activity, walking, and sports), and nurses measured blood pressure and took blood samples. Analyses were done in 2006. RESULTS: a total of 24.2% of men and 19.8% of women met the activity recommendations, dropping to a total of 17.6% and 13.0% when domestic activity was excluded. With the exception of systolic blood pressure in women, domestic activity was not related to a favorable profile of any other CVD risk factors. There was a trend for lower body mass index and waist circumference and higher high-density lipoprotein cholesterol with increased participation in walking. Sports participation was related to a favorable profile for all risk factors excluding systolic blood pressure in men and cholesterol and C-reactive protein in women. The odds of being obese (body mass index more than 30 kg/m(2)) were lower with increased participation in walking and sports. CONCLUSIONS: Despite its high prevalence, domestic physical activity was not associated with improvements in CVD risk factors. These results suggest that physical activity recommendations may need to focus on physical activities other than those performed in and around the household.

BACKGROUND: Leisure-time physical activity patterns are low and socially patterned. Ecologic studies of the provision of exercise facilities indicate that in areas of deprivation, there is a trend toward reduced availability of exercise facilities compared with more affluent areas. Existing studies are restricted to single geographic areas or regions. In this study, national-level data were used to examine the relationship between neighborhood deprivation and the density of physical activity facilities in England. METHODS: a database of all indoor exercise facilities in England was obtained, and facilities were linked to administrative areas and assigned a deprivation score. Census data were used to calculate the density of physical activity facilities per 1000 people per quintile of deprivation. The exercise facilities data were collected in 2005, and the analysis was conducted in 2006. RESULTS: When all 5552 facilities were considered, there was a statistically significant negative relationship (p

Motivational interviewing is a patient-centred counselling method designed to build motivation for behaviour change by resolving ambivalence. It was developed in the addictions field and has since been applied to medical and health promotion settings. This paper will provide a brief overview of the method and will discuss how it may be used in consultations for patients with musculoskeletal problems to increase engagement with treatment and to build motivation for helpful behaviour change.

The authors investigated whether low levels of walking among older adults in the UK were associated with demographic and health characteristics, as well as perceived environmental attributes. Survey data were obtained from self-administered standard questionnaires given to 680 people age 50+ (mean age 64.4 yr) attending nationally led walking schemes. Items concerned with demographic characteristics and perceived barriers to neighborhood walking were analyzed using multiple logistic regression. Citing more than 1 environmental barrier to walking, versus not, was associated with significantly reduced levels of (leisure) walking (MET/hr) in the preceding week (Z = -2.35, p =. 019), but physical activity levels overall did not differ significantly (Z = -0.71, p =. 48). Citing a health-related barrier to walking significantly adversely affected overall physical activity levels (Z = -2.72, p =. 006). The authors concluded that, among older people who favor walking, health problems might more seriously affect overall physical activity levels than perceived environmental barriers.

OBJECTIVES: to investigate whether, and to what extent, perceived barriers to neighbourhood walking (BTNW) may be associated with physical activity levels. DESIGN: Prospective survey with 12-month follow-up. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: 750 people attending walking schemes throughout England and Scotland; 551 completed the follow-up. independent variables were demographic characteristics, examples of possible "external" barriers to walking-for example, "worries about personal safety", and one item concerning ill health. The main outcome measures were "metabolic equivalent" (MET) hours' walking and overall physical activity in the preceding week. RESULTS: Baseline and follow-up demographic characteristics were similar and physical activity levels generally high. Leisure walking changed little over 12 months, while total physical activity levels reduced significantly from a mean (SD) of 71.26 (78.14) MET hours per week at baseline to 59.57 (181.40) at the 12-month follow-up (p

OBJECTIVES: This study examined the association between access to quality urban green space and levels of physical activity. STUDY DESIGN: a cross-sectional examination of the relationship between access to quality urban green space and level of recreational physical activity in 4950 middle-aged (40-70 years) respondents from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC), who resided in Norwich, UK. METHODS: Using geographic information systems (GIS), three measures of access to open green space were calculated based on distance only, distance and size of green space and distance, size and quality of green space. Multiple regression models were used to determine the relationship between the three indicators of access to open green space and level of recreational physical activity. RESULTS: There was no evidence of clear relationships between recreational activity and access to green spaces. Non-significant associations were apparent for all variables, and there was no evidence of a clear trend in regression coefficients across quartiles of access for either the distance, size adjusted, and quality and size-adjusted models. Furthermore, the neighbourhood measures of access to green spaces showed non-significant associations with recreational physical activity. CONCLUSIONS: Access to urban green spaces does not appear to be associated with population levels of recreational physical activity in our sample of middle-aged adults.

BACKGROUND: Longitudinal studies almost always have some individuals with missing outcomes. Inappropriate handling of the missing data in the analysis can result in misleading conclusions. Here we review a wide range of methods to handle missing outcomes in single and repeated measures data and discuss which methods are most appropriate. METHODS: Using data from a randomized controlled trial to compare two interventions for increasing physical activity, we compare complete-case analysis; ad hoc imputation techniques such as last observation carried forward and worst-case; model-based imputation; longitudinal models with random effects; and recently proposed joint models for repeated measures data and non-ignorable dropout. RESULTS: Estimated intervention effects from ad hoc imputation methods vary widely. Standard multiple imputation and longitudinal modelling agree closely, as they should. Modifying the modelling method to allow for non-ignorable dropout had little effect on estimated intervention effects, but imputing using a common imputation model in both groups gave more conservative results. CONCLUSIONS: Results from ad hoc imputation methods should be avoided in favour of methods with more plausible assumptions although they may be computationally more complex. Although standard multiple imputation methods and longitudinal modelling methods are equivalent for estimating the treatment effect, the two approaches suggest different ways of relaxing the assumptions, and the choice between them depends on contextual knowledge.

OBJECTIVES: We examined the association between physical activity and cognitive functioning in middle age. METHODS: Data were derived from a prospective occupational cohort study of 10308 civil servants aged 35-55 years at baseline (phase 1; 1985-1988). Physical activity level, categorized as low, medium, or high, was assessed at phases 1, 3 (1991-1994), and 5 (1997-1999). Cognitive functioning was tested at phase 5, when respondents were 46-68 years old. RESULTS: in both prospective (odds ratio [OR] = 1.65; 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.30, 2.10) and cross-sectional (OR=1.79; 95% CI=1.38, 2.32) analyses, low levels of physical activity were a risk factor for poor performance on a measure of fluid intelligence. Analyses aimed at assessing cumulative effects (summary of physical activity levels at the 3 time points) showed a graded linear relationship with fluid intelligence, with persistently low levels of physical activity being particularly harmful (OR=2.21; 95% CI=1.37, 3.57). CONCLUSIONS: Low levels of physical activity are a risk factor for cognitive functioning in middle age, fluid intelligence in particular.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the effectiveness of strategies to enable people to achieve an increase in their physical activity. OBJECTIVES: to assess the effects of interventions for promoting physical activity in adults aged 16 years and older, not living in an institution. SEARCH STRATEGY: We searched CENTRAL (Issue 4, 2001), MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, PsychLIT, BIDS ISI, SPORTDISCUS, SIGLE, SCISEARCH (from earliest date available to December 2001) and reference lists of articles. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised, controlled, trials comparing different interventions to encourage sedentary adults not living in an institution to become physically active. Studies required a minimum of six months follow up from the start of the intervention to the collection of final data and either used an intention to treat analysis or, failing that, had no more than 20% loss to follow up. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: at least two reviewers independently assessed each study quality and extracted data. Study authors were contacted for additional information where necessary. Standardised mean differences and 95% confidence intervals were calculated for continuous measures of self reported physical activity and cardio-respiratory fitness. For studies with dichotomous outcomes, odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were calculated. MAIN RESULTS: the effect of interventions on self reported physical activity (11 studies; 3940 participants) was positive and moderate, with a pooled standardised mean difference of 0.31 (95% CI 0.12 to 0.50), as was the effect on cardio-respiratory fitness (7 studies; 1406 participants) pooled SMD 0.4 (95% CI 0.09 to 0.70). The effect of interventions in achieving a predetermined threshold of physical activity (6 studies; 2313 participants) was not significant with an odds ratio of 1.30 (95% CI 0.87 to 1.95). There was significant heterogeneity in the reported effects as well as heterogeneity in characteristics of the interventions. The heterogeneity in reported effects was reduced in higher quality studies, when physical activity was self-directed with some professional guidance and when there was on-going professional support. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Our review suggests that physical activity interventions have a moderate effect on self reported physical activity and cardio-respiratory fitness, but not on achieving a predetermined level of physical activity. Due to the clinical and statistical heterogeneity of the studies, only limited conclusions can be drawn about the effectiveness of individual components of the interventions. Future studies should provide greater detail of the components of interventions.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the effectiveness of strategies to enable people to achieve an increase in their physical activity. OBJECTIVES: to assess the effects of interventions for promoting physical activity in adults aged 16 years and older, not living in an institution. SEARCH STRATEGY: We searched CENTRAL (Issue 4, 2001), MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, PsychLIT, BIDS ISI, SPORTDISCUS, SIGLE, SCISEARCH (from earliest date available to December 2001) and reference lists of articles. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised, controlled, trials comparing different interventions to encourage sedentary adults not living in an institution to become physically active. Studies required a minimum of six months follow up from the start of the intervention to the collection of final data and either used an intention to treat analysis or, failing that, had no more than 20% loss to follow up. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: at least two reviewers independently assessed each study quality and extracted data. Study authors were contacted for additional information where necessary. Standardised mean differences and 95% confidence intervals were calculated for continuous measures of self reported physical activity and cardio-respiratory fitness. For studies with dichotomous outcomes, odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were calculated. MAIN RESULTS: the effect of interventions on self reported physical activity (11 studies; 3940 participants) was positive and moderate, with a pooled standardised mean difference of 0.31 (95% CI 0.12 to 0.50), as was the effect on cardio-respiratory fitness (7 studies; 1406 participants) pooled SMD 0.4 (95% CI 0.09 to 0.70). The effect of interventions in achieving a predetermined threshold of physical activity (6 studies; 2313 participants) was not significant with an odds ratio of 1.30 (95% CI 0.87 to 1.95). There was significant heterogeneity in the reported effects as well as heterogeneity in characteristics of the interventions. The heterogeneity in reported effects was reduced in higher quality studies, when physical activity was self-directed with some professional guidance and when there was on-going professional support. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Our review suggests that physical activity interventions have a moderate effect on self reported physical activity and cardio-respiratory fitness, but not on achieving a predetermined level of physical activity. Due to the clinical and statistical heterogeneity of the studies, only limited conclusions can be drawn about the effectiveness of individual components of the interventions. Future studies should provide greater detail of the components of interventions.

Background: in the elderly, higher levels of physical function have consistently been associated with higher levels of physical activity. In this study, we test the hypothesis that physical activity earlier in the life course preserves high physical function over an extended period of time, before the onset of major age-related declines in physical function. Methods: a cohort study with an average of 8.8 years of follow-up (1991-1993 to 2001). Logistic regression analyses were conducted adjusting for long-standing illness, baseline physical function, smoking, body mass index, and employment grade. Participants were 6398 London-based civil servants aged 39 to 63 years at baseline, 90% of whom were working. The main outcome measure was physical function measured by the Short Form (SF-36) General Health Survey. Results: Relatively fit and healthy, mainly working, middle-aged men and women who were physically active at recommended levels, were more likely to report high physical function at follow-up, compared to their sedentary counterparts (odds ratio 1.63, 95% confidence interval 1.32-2.00). The association between initial level of physical activity and high physical function at follow-up remained after adjustment for baseline level of physical function and the presence of long-standing illness. Conclusions: Participation in a physically active lifestyle during mid-life appears to be critical to the maintenance of high physical function in those who are fit and well enough to work and do or do not report any long-standing illness. © 2005 American Journal of Preventive Medicine.

BACKGROUND: to explore the relationship between work, retirement and physical activity. METHODS: Cross-sectional analyses of data from self-completed questionnaires by 6224 civil servants aged 45-69 years participating in phase 5 of the Whitehall II longitudinal study. RESULTS: There appeared to be a dose-response relationship between hours worked and the prevalence of physical activity, with a lower prevalence of recommended physical activity amongst participants working full time (> or =30 h/week), higher prevalence rates amongst those working part time (

BACKGROUND: As epidemiological studies have become more complex, demands for short, easily administered measures of risk factors have increased. This study investigates whether such a measure of physical activity is associated with the risk of death from all causes and death from specific causes. METHODS: a prospective follow-up study of 11,090 men and women, aged 35-64 years, recruited from five UK general practices who responded to a postal questionnaire in 1989. Self-reported frequency of vigorous-intensity physical activity and data on confounding factors were collected at baseline survey. Death notifications up to 31 December 2001 were provided by the Office for National Statistics. The relative risk (and 95% confidence interval) of dying associated with each level of exposure to physical activity was estimated by the hazard ratio in a series of Cox regression models. RESULTS: After >10 years' follow-up there were 825 deaths among the 10 522 subjects with no previous history of angina or myocardial infarction. Participation in vigorous exercise was associated with a significantly lower risk of all-cause mortality. Similar associations were found for ischaemic heart disease and cancer mortality, although the relationships were not significant at the 5% level. CONCLUSIONS: Simple measures of self-reported vigorous physical activity are associated with the risk of future mortality, at least all-cause mortality in a somewhat selected group. Interpretation of the finding should be treated with caution due to the reliance on self-report and the possibility that residual confounding may underlie the associations. Because moderate-intensity physical activity is also beneficial to health, short physical activity questionnaires should include measures of such physical activity in the future.

Supportive environments have been used to change and influence health behaviours like smoking. While psychological and ecological theories and models demonstrate the possible influences of the environment on health-enhancing physical activity (HEPA), little is known about the effectiveness of the environmental interventions. This paper presents the results of a systematic review of studies that used environmental interventions to increase health-enhancing physical activity. Two groups of studies were found, studies that changed the physical environment by creating new HEPA facilities, policies and supporting mechanisms, and studies that used the elements of the environment as an active or sedentary 'point of choice', via educational materials to promote stair use. Environmental change studies showed a small increase on HEPA behaviour, but the relative impact of environment changes was not evaluated. A number of before and after studies have observed a weak effect of a simple environmental change to stimulate stair climbing while travelling or shopping. Current national policy has embraced the environment as an option for promoting health-enhancing physical activity, especially active travel, in spite of the lack of effectiveness data. It is recommended that existing or planned public health environment and HEPA initiatives should use appropriate evaluation methods to assess their efficacy and effectiveness. Further developmental research into the nature of the relationship of the environment to particular HEPA behaviours is strongly recommended before developing new environmental interventions.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: to examine the relation between adults' perceptions of the social and physical environment and their self reported walking behaviour. DESIGN: Cross sectional survey. SETTING: England. PARTICIPANTS: a national sample of 4265 adults aged 16-74 years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Self reported walking behaviour was categorised into two dichotomous variables: (a) any reported walking in past four weeks, (b) reported walking > or =150 minutes per week in the past four weeks. Perceptions of the social environment covered safety of walking alone and social support for walking. Perceptions of the physical environment covered attractiveness of local area for walking, access to shops, leisure centres, parks, cycle paths, and traffic density. MAIN RESULTS: in women, perceived safety of walking during the day (OR = 0.53; 95% CI: 0.31 to 0.88), and no shop within walking distance (OR = 0.72; 95% CI: 0.52 to 0.99) were associated with any reported walking occasions. Perceptions of the environment were not related to women walking > or =150 min/week. In men, having a park within walking distance was associated with walking > or =150 min/week (OR = 2.22; 95% CI: 1.18 to 4.35). No other significant associations were found. CONCLUSIONS: Women seem to be more concerned about walking for utility and in safety. Men are more likely to walk > or =150 min/week if they have access to a local park but their walking is not influenced by concerns about safety. Future research should focus on the relation between objective measures rather than perceptions of the environment and physical activity.

The purpose of this multidisciplinary review paper is to critically review evidence from descriptive, efficacy and effectiveness studies concerned with physical activity and older people. Both levels of fitness (aerobic power, strength, flexibility and functional capability) and measures of physical activity involvement decline with age, and the extent to which this is due to a biological ageing processes or disuse (physical inactivity) is critically examined. The review will consider the evidence for a causal relationship between sedentary behaviour/physical activity programmes and cardiovascular, musculoskeletal and psycho-social health, independent living and health-related quality of life into old age. The review also considers the effectiveness of different physical activity interventions for older people and issues relating to cost-effectiveness. The implications for future policy in terms of research, health care services, and education and training are briefly discussed.

BACKGROUND: over the last 10 years 'exercise referral schemes' have been popular even though the evidence for effectiveness of any one-to-one intervention in primary care is deficient. We report the results of a primary care based one-to-one intervention that compared the effect of two communication styles with a no-intervention control group on self-reported physical activity at 12 months. METHODS: in all, 1658 middle-aged men and women were randomly assigned to 30 minutes of brief negotiation or direct advice in primary care or a no-intervention control group. The main outcome was self-reported physical activity at 12 months. Secondary outcome measures included change in blood pressure and body mass index. RESULTS: Intention-to-treat analysis revealed no significant differences in physical activity between groups. Brief negotiation group participants who completed the study increased their physical activity significantly more than controls. There was no change in body mass index in any group. The brief negotiation group produced a greater reduction in diastolic blood pressure than direct advice. CONCLUSION: If patients whose health may benefit from increased physical activity seek advice in primary care, 20-30 minutes of brief negotiation to increase physical activity is probably more effective than similar attempts to persuade or coerce. However, blanket physical activity promotion in primary care is not effective. The most effective way of increasing physical activity in primary care has yet to be determined.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: to assess the impact of a national campaign on awareness of the campaign, change in knowledge of physical activity recommendations and self reported physical activity. DESIGN: three year prospective longitudinal survey using a multi-stage, cluster random probability design to select participants. SETTING: England. PARTICIPANTS: a nationally representative sample of 3189 adults aged 16-74 years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Awareness of the advertising element of the campaign, changes in knowledge of physical activity recommendations for health and self reported physical activity. RESULTS: 38% of participants were aware of the main advertising images, assessed six to eight months after the main television advertisement. The proportion of participants knowledgeable about moderate physical activity recommendations increased by 3.0% (95% CI: 1.4%, 4.5%) between waves 1 and 2 and 3.7% (95% CI: 2.1%, 5.3%) between waves 1 and 3. The change in proportion of active people between baseline and waves 1 and 2 was -0.02 (95% CI: -2.0 to +1.7) and between waves 1 and 3 was -9.8 (-7.9 to -11.7). CONCLUSION: the proportion of participants who were knowledgeable about the new recommendations, increased significantly after the campaign. There was however, no significant difference in knowledge by awareness of the main campaign advertisement. There is no evidence that ACTIVE for LIFE improved physical activity, either overall or in any subgroup.

OBJECTIVE: to assess the cost-effectiveness of a primary care based intervention aimed at increasing levels of physical activity in inactive people aged 45-74. METHODS: a total of 714 inactive people aged 45-74, taken from two west London general practices, were randomised into two groups. Intervention subjects were invited to a consultation with an exercise development officer, and offered a personalised 10 week programme to increase their level of regular physical activity, combining leisure centre and home based activities. Control subjects were sent information on local leisure centres. All subjects were followed up at eight months. RESULTS: There was a net 10.6% (95% confidence interval 4.5 to 16.9%) reduction in the proportion of people classified as sedentary in the intervention group compared with the control group, eight months after the intervention. The intervention group also reported an increase in the mean number of episodes of physical activity per week, as compared with the control group (an additional 1.52 episodes (95% confidence interval 1.14 to 1.95)). The cost of moving a person out of the sedentary group was shown to be less than 650 Pounds. The cost of moving someone to the now commonly recommended level was estimated at almost 2500 Pounds. CONCLUSIONS: Moderate physical activity can be successfully encouraged in previously sedentary men and women aged 45-74 through a primary care based intervention. The process of recruitment was the most important variable cost. A high uptake rate would maximise cost-effectiveness, and sensitivity analysis suggests that unit costs could be halved with a more effective recruitment strategy.

In the past few years, alliances between primary care and leisure services have become a popular strategy for exercise promotion in the England. 'GP Referral Schemes' typically involve referral to a local leisure centre by a General Practitioner (GP), whereupon patients are inducted into a 10-12 week exercise programme at a reduced fee. Referred patients are usually white, middle aged and apparently healthy women, with the main reason for referral being overweight. The schemes are characterised by their lack of formal evaluation, making conclusions about effectiveness impossible. In the US, physicians advice to exercise has been the focus of interventions to date. Two controlled trials, one randomised, have provided some evidence that exercise behaviour can be changed, at least in the short term. The ability to recruit sufficient numbers of patients, who have potentially the most to gain from increased physical activity, is the biggest barrier to primary care based interventions. One contributing factor to this problem, may be doctors and nurses' knowledge about the benefits of physical activity.

This chapter discusses lifestyle management strategies for obesity in adults and is based on an assumption that treatment, resulting in appropriate and sustained weight loss, is of benefit to individuals. It examines dietary management strategies including the use of very low calorie diets, moderate energy restriction and individual and group approaches in commercial and non-commercial environments. It explores the role of physical activity in the treatment of obesity in particular focusing on the associated health benefits and the increasing evidence of the importance of physical activity in weight maintenance. It discusses the effect of behavioural interventions on achieving and maintaining weight loss and briefly offers suggestions for the organisation of lifestyle interventions.

We have reviewed randomised controlled trials of physical activity promotion to provide recent and reliable information on the effectiveness of physical activity promotion. Computerised databases and references of references were searched. Experts were contacted and asked for information about existing work. Studies assessed were randomised controlled trials of healthy, free living, adult subjects, where exercise behaviour was the dependent variable. Eleven trials were identified. No United Kingdom based studies were found. Interventions that encourage walking and do not require attendance at a facility are most likely to lead to sustainable increases in overall physical activity. Brisk walking has the greatest potential for increasing overall activity levels of a sedentary population and meeting current public health recommendations. The small number of trials limits the strength of any conclusions and highlights the need for more research.

OBJECTIVES: to review evidence on the effectiveness of trials of physical activity promotion in healthy, free living adults. To identify the more effective intervention programmes. METHODS: Computerised databases and references were searched. Experts were contacted and asked for information about existing work. INCLUSION CRITERIA: Randomised controlled trials of healthy, free living adult subjects, where exercise behaviour was the dependent variable were included. CONCLUSIONS: Ten trials were identified. The small number of trials limits the strength of any conclusions and highlights the need for more research. No UK based studies were found. Previously sedentary adults can increase activity levels and sustain them. Promotion of these changes requires personal instruction, continued support, and exercise of moderate intensity which does not depend on attendance at a facility. The exercise should be easily included into an existing lifestyle and should be enjoyable. Walking is the exercise most likely to fulfil these criteria.