During dynamic and time-constrained sporting tasks performers rely on both online perceptual information and prior contextual knowledge to make effective anticipatory judgments. It has been suggested that performers may integrate these sources of information in an approximately Bayesian fashion, by weighting available information sources according to their expected precision. In the present work, we extended Bayesian brain approaches to anticipation by using formal computational models to estimate how performers weighted different information sources when anticipating the bounce direction of a rugby ball. Both recreational (novice) and professional (expert) rugby players (n = 58) were asked to predict the bounce height of an oncoming rugby ball in a temporal occlusion paradigm. A Bayesian computational model, based on a partially observable Markov decision process, was fitted to observed responses to estimate participants’ weighting of online sensory cues and prior beliefs about ball bounce height. The results showed that experts were more sensitive to online sensory information, but that neither experts nor novices relied heavily on contextual priors in this task. Experts, but not novices, were observed to down-weight contextual priors in their anticipatory decisions as later and more precise visual cues emerged, as predicted by Bayesian and active inference accounts of perception.

Background: Flow is a peak experiential state, during which athletes report focused concentration, effortless performance and enhanced enjoyment. Flow, or ‘the zone’, has received particular interest within sporting circles because flow experiences appear to be associated with peak athletic performances. Yet, the nature of the flow-performance relationship is not straightforward and is yet to be critically reviewed. Objectives: This systematic review and meta-analysis sought to examine the empirical evidence for a flow-performance relationship, examine potential mechanisms, and assess the quality of current evidence. Methods: a PRISMA guided systematic review was conducted in May 2020. Peer-reviewed articles, published in English language journals, which examined the relationship between flow and performance were searched for, using five online databases. The results of the studies were collated into a narrative synthesis as well as a meta-analysis. Results: Twenty articles met the inclusion criteria, featuring 22 studies that were appropriate for meta-analysis. The pooled effect size (r = 0.31, 95% CI [0.24; 0.38]) indicated that across a range of sporting and gaming tasks there was a consistent medium-sized relationship between flow experience and task performance. A number of mechanisms were proposed to explain this relationship, but none were supported by convincing empirical evidence. Conclusions: Performance enhancing effects appear highly likely given the functional mental state that arises during flow. Yet, current evidence is unable to determine the exact nature of the flow-performance relationship, or the mechanisms which mediate this effect. A number of conceptual and methodological challenges

Optimal performance in time-constrained and dynamically changing environments depends on making reliable predictions about future outcomes. In sporting tasks, performers have been found to employ multiple information sources to maximize the accuracy of their predictions, but questions remain about how different information sources are weighted and integrated to guide anticipation. In this paper, we outline how active inference, a unifying account of perception and action, explains many of the prominent findings in the sports anticipation literature. Active inference proposes that perception and action are underpinned by the need to minimize prediction errors and optimise a predictive model of the world. To this end, decision making approximates Bayesian inference and actions are used to minimize future prediction errors. Using a series of Bayesian neurocomputational models based on a partially observable Markov process, we demonstrate that key findings from the literature can be recreated from the first principles of active inference. In doing so, we formulate a number of novel, empirically falsifiable hypotheses about human anticipation capabilities which could guide future investigations in the field.

The integration of prior expectations, sensory information, and environmental volatility is proposed to be atypical in Autism Spectrum Disorder, yet few studies have tested these predictive processes in active movement tasks. We used an immersive virtual-reality racquetball paradigm to explore how visual sampling behaviours and movement kinematics are adjusted in relation to unexpected, uncertain, and volatile changes in environmental statistics. We found that prior expectations concerning ball ‘bounciness’ affected sensorimotor control in both autistic and neurotypical participants, with all individuals using prediction-driven gaze strategies to track the virtual ball. However, autistic participants showed substantial differences in visuomotor behaviour when environmental conditions were more volatile. Specifically, uncertainty-related performance difficulties in these conditions were accompanied by atypical movement kinematics and visual sampling behaviours. Results support proposals that autistic people overestimate the volatility of sensory environments, and suggest that context-sensitive differences in active inference could explain a range of movement-related difficulties in autism.

Head-mounted eye tracking has been fundamental for developing an understanding of sporting expertise, as the way in which performers sample visual information from the environment is a major determinant of successful performance. There is, however, a long running tension between the desire to study realistic, in-situ gaze behaviour and the difficulties of acquiring accurate ocular measurements in dynamic and fast-moving sporting tasks. Here, we describe how immersive technologies, such as virtual reality, offer an increasingly compelling approach for conducting eye movement research in sport. The possibility of studying gaze behaviour in representative and realistic environments, but with high levels of experimental control, could enable significant strides forward for eye tracking in sport and improve understanding of how eye movements underpin sporting skills. By providing a rationale for virtual reality as an optimal environment for eye tracking research, as well as outlining practical considerations related to hardware, software and data analysis, we hope to guide researchers and practitioners in the use of this approach.

This paper examines the application of active inference to naturalistic visuomotor control. Active inference proposes that actions serve to minimise future prediction errors and are dynamically adjusted according to uncertainty about sensory information, predictions, or the environment. We investigated whether predictive gaze behaviours are indeed adjusted in this Bayes-optimal fashion during a virtual racquetball task. In this task, participants intercepted bouncing balls with varying levels of elasticity, under conditions of high and low environmental volatility. Participants’ gaze patterns differed between stable and volatile conditions in a manner consistent with generative models of Bayes-optimal behaviour. Partially observable Markov models also revealed an increased rate of associative learning in response to unpredictable shifts in environmental probabilities, although there was no overall effect of volatility on this parameter. Findings extend active inference frameworks into complex and unconstrained visuomotor tasks and present important implications for a neurocomputational understanding of the visual guidance of action.

Objectives: in the context of Grand Slam tennis, we sought to examine how situational pressure and prior errors can disrupt subsequent performance in elite performers. Methods: a retrospective analysis of more than 650,000 points across 12 Grand Slam tennis tournaments from 2016-2019 was conducted to identify pressurised in-game moments and unforced errors. A scoring system was used to index situational pressure based on the current match situation (e.g. break points, stage of the match) on a point-by-point basis. The occurrence of performance errors was identified based on double faults and unforced errors, as instances of controllable mistakes. Results: a mixed effects logistic regression model revealed that an increase in the pressure index (a 1-5 score) significantly increased the probability of a performance error (ps<.001), as did an error on the preceding point (OR=1.2, 95%CI [1.17, 1.23], p<.001). A multiplicative effect of pressure and prior errors also emerged, as the negative impact of prior errors on performance was greater when situational pressure was already high, in line with the predictions of Attentional Control Theory: Sport (ACTS). Analyses of the distribution of winners and unforced errors across individual players revealed that winning players were as susceptible to pressure and prior errors as losing players. Conclusions: These findings extend our understanding of how ongoing feedback from prior mistakes may further exacerbate the effects of pressure on performance.

Virtual reality (VR) has clear potential for improving simulation training in many industries. Yet, methods for testing the fidelity, validity and training efficacy of VR environments is, in general, lagging behind their adoption. In this study we examined the effectiveness of VR for training Police room searching procedures, and assessed the corresponding development of perceptual-cognitive expertise through eye-tracking indices of search efficiency. Participants (n=54) were assigned to a VR rule-learning and search training game, a search only training game or a no-practice control group. The VR search training group developed more efficient search behaviours (indexed by saccade size, search rate and gaze entropy) and performed better than controls on a novel transfer test. Efficient gaze behaviours learned during training were not, however, evident during the transfer test. These findings demonstrate how VR can be used to develop perceptual-cognitive skills, but also highlight the challenges of achieving transfer of training.

In the present work we sought to use the rare opportunity to compare professional sport without a crowd with typical performance from previous seasons. We focused on the English Premier League as, anecdotally, there appears to have been an increase in goal scoring. Our primary aims were to: 1) determine whether more goals are in fact being scored; and 2) if so, further explore whether any performance data can indicate why this might be the case.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive brain stimulation technique that has been linked with a range of physiological and cognitive enhancements relevant to sporting performance. As a number of positive and null findings have been reported in the literature, the present meta-analysis sought to synthesise results across endurance, strength and visuomotor skill domains to investigate if tDCS improves any aspect of sporting performance. Online database searches in August 2020 identified 43 full-text studies which examined the acute effects of tDCS compared to sham/control conditions on physical endurance, muscular strength and visuomotor skills in healthy adults. The quantitative analysis indicated a small overall effect favouring tDCS stimulation over sham/control (SMD=0.25, CI95%[0.14;0.36]). Effects on strength (SMD=0.31, CI95%[0.10;0.51]) and visuomotor (SMD=0.29, CI95%[0.00;0.57]) tasks were larger than endurance performance (SMD=0.18, CI95%[0.00;0.37]). Meta-regressions indicated effect sizes were not related to stimulation parameters, but genetics, gender, and experience may modulate tDCS effects. The results suggest tDCS has the potential to be used as an ergogenic aid in conjunction with a specified training regime.

Flow is an optimal experience that has received particular interest within sport because of a possible relationship with enhanced athletic performances. Yet, the strength and direction of the putative flow–performance relationship remain unclear. Consequently, a PRISMA guided systematic review was conducted in May 2020 to examine the empirical evidence for a flow–performance relationship, to examine potential mechanisms, and to assess the quality of current evidence. Peer-reviewed articles that examined the relationship between flow and performance in sport or computer gaming tasks were searched for using five online databases. The results were collated into a narrative synthesis and a meta-analysis. Twenty articles met the inclusion criteria, featuring 22 studies that were appropriate for meta-analysis. The overall quality of the studies was fairly good, with a mean quality assessment score of 76.5% (SD = 9.7). The pooled effect size (r = 0.31, 95% CI [0.24; 0.38]) indicated that across a range of sport and gaming tasks there was a medium-sized flow–performance relationship. However, current evidence is unable to determine the causal direction of this relationship or the mechanisms that mediate it. A number of conceptual and methodological challenges facing the study of flow are discussed and recommendations for future work are outlined.

The integration of prior expectations, sensory information, and environmental volatility is proposed to be atypical in Autism Spectrum Disorder, yet few studies have tested these predictive processes in active movement tasks. To address this gap in the research, we used an immersive virtual-reality racquetball paradigm to explore how visual sampling behaviours and movement kinematics are adjusted in relation to unexpected, uncertain, and volatile changes in environmental statistics. We found that prior expectations concerning ball 'bounciness' affected sensorimotor control in both autistic and neurotypical participants, with all individuals using prediction-driven gaze strategies to track the virtual ball. However, autistic participants showed substantial differences in visuomotor behaviour when environmental conditions were more volatile. Specifically, uncertainty-related performance difficulties in these conditions were accompanied by atypical movement kinematics and visual sampling responses. Results support proposals that autistic people overestimate the volatility of sensory environments, and suggest that context-sensitive differences in active inference could explain a range of movement-related difficulties in autism.

Virtual reality (VR) has clear potential for improving simulation training in many industries. Yet, methods for testing the fidelity, validity and training efficacy of VR environments are, in general, lagging behind their adoption. There is limited understanding of how readily skills learned in VR will transfer, and what features of training design will facilitate effective transfer. Two potentially important elements are the psychological fidelity of the environment, and the stimulus correspondence with the transfer context. In this study, we examined the effectiveness of VR for training police room searching procedures, and assessed the corresponding development of perceptual-cognitive skill through eye-tracking indices of search efficiency. Participants (n = 54) were assigned to a VR rule-learning and search training task (FTG), a search only training task (SG) or a no-practice control group (CG). Both FTG and SG developed more efficient search behaviours during the training task, as indexed by increases in saccade size and reductions in search rate. The FTG performed marginally better than the CG on a novel VR transfer test, but no better than the SG. More efficient gaze behaviours learned during training were not, however, evident during the transfer test. These findings demonstrate how VR can be used to develop perceptual-cognitive skills, but also highlight the challenges of achieving transfer of training.

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) describes a condition of poor motor performance in the absence of intellectual impairment. Despite being one of the most prevalent developmental disorders, little is known about how fundamental visuomotor processes might function in this group. One prevalent idea is children with DCD interact with their environment in a less predictive fashion than typically developing children. A metric of prediction which has not been examined in this group is the degree to which the hands and eyes are coordinated when performing manual tasks. To this end, we examined hand and eye movements during an object lifting task in a group of children with DCD (n=19) and an age-matched group of children without DCD (n=39). We observed no differences between the groups in terms of how well they coordinated their hands and eyes when lifting objects, nor in terms of the degree by which the eye led the hand. We thus find no evidence to support the proposition that children with DCD coordinate their hands and eyes in a non-predictive fashion. In a follow-up exploratory analysis we did, however, note differences in fundamental patterns of eye movements between the groups, with children in the DCD group showing some evidence of atypical visual sampling strategies and gaze anchoring behaviours during the task.

AbstractWhen tracking multiple moving targets among visually similar distractors, human observers are capable of distributing attention over several spatial locations. It is unclear, however, whether capacity limitations or perceptual–cognitive abilities are responsible for the development of expertise in multiple object tracking. Across two experiments, we examined the role of working memory and visual attention in tracking expertise. In Experiment 1, individuals who regularly engaged in object tracking sports (soccer and rugby) displayed improved tracking performance, relative to non-tracking sports (swimming, rowing, running) (p = 0.02, ηp2 = 0.163), but no differences in gaze strategy (ps > 0.31). In Experiment 2, participants trained on an adaptive object tracking task showed improved tracking performance (p = 0.005, d = 0.817), but no changes in gaze strategy (ps > 0.07). They did, however, show significant improvement in a working memory transfer task (p < 0.001, d = 0.970). These findings indicate that the development of tracking expertise is more closely linked to processing capacity limits than perceptual–cognitive strategies.

Achieving a state of flow is associated with positive experiences and improved sporting performance (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). Focused attention is a fundamental component of the flow experience, but to date there has been little investigation of whether attention plays a causal role in creating flow, or is a product of it. Consequently, this study aimed to test the effect of an attentional focus manipulation on flow and performance in a simulated driving task. It was predicted that an external focus would lead to improved visuomotor control, greater flow experience and improved performance. Thirty-three participants from a student population completed the driving task under both internal and external focus instructions. Eye movements and steering wheel movements were recorded during each race. Participants reported greater flow experience (p  0.28). These findings suggest that adopting an external focus of attention may contribute to positive performance states such as flow.

Objectives: Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a form of neurostimulation that can modulate neural activity in targeted brain regions through electrical current applied directly to the scalp. Previous findings have shown cognitive enhancement and improved motor learning following tDCS. Consequently, there has been growing interest in direct brain stimulation for enhancing sporting skills. We aimed to assess the effect of tDCS on golf putting performance and control of visual attention. Design: Using a mixed factorial design, the effect of stimulation (between-participants) was assessed at baseline, following stimulation and in a pressure test (within-participants). Methods: 73 novice golfers were randomly assigned to transcranial direct current stimulation of frontal, motor or visual cortex, or sham stimulation. Participants first performed a series of golf putts at baseline, then while receiving tDCS and finally under pressurised conditions. Putting performance (distance from the hole) and control of visual attention (quiet eye duration) was assessed. Results: There was no effect of real tDCS stimulation compared to sham stimulation on either performance or visual attention (quiet eye durations), for any stimulation site. Conclusions: While beneficial effects of tDCS have been found in computerised cognitive tests and simple motor tasks, there is currently little evidence that this will transfer to real-world sporting performance.

Compared to sports performers, relatively little is known about how sports officials make decisions at a perceptual-cognitive level. Thus, this study examined the decision-making accuracy and gaze behaviour of rugby union referees of varying skill levels while reviewing scrum scenarios. Elite (n = 9) and trainee (n = 9) referees, as well as experienced players (n = 9), made decisions while watching ten projected scrum clips and wearing a mobile eye-tracker. Decision-making accuracy and gaze behaviour were recorded for each scrum. The elite and trainee referees made more accurate decisions than the players, and differences in gaze behavior were observed. The elite and trainee referees displayed lower search rates, spent more time fixating central-pack (i.e. front rows, binds, and contact point) and less time fixating outer-pack (e.g. second rows) and non-pack (e.g. other) locations, and exhibited lower entropy than the players. While search rate failed to predict decision-making accuracy, the time spent fixating central-, outer-, and non-pack locations, as well as entropy, were significant predictors. The findings have implications for training perceptual-cognitive skill among sports officials.

Virtual reality (VR) is a promising tool for expanding the possibilities of psychological experimentation and implementing immersive training applications. Despite a recent surge in interest, there remains an inadequate understanding of how VR impacts basic cognitive processes. Due to the artificial presentation of egocentric distance cues in virtual environments, a number of cues to depth in the optic array are impaired or placed in conflict with each other. Moreover, realistic haptic information is all but absent from current VR systems. The resulting conflicts could impact not only the execution of motor skills in VR but also raise deeper concerns about basic visual processing, and the extent to which virtual objects elicit neural and behavioural responses representative of real objects. In this brief review, we outline how the novel perceptual environment of VR may affect vision for action, by shifting users away from a dorsal mode of control. Fewer binocular cues to depth, conflicting depth information and limited haptic feedback may all impair the specialised, efficient, online control of action characteristic of the dorsal stream. A shift from dorsal to ventral control of action may create a fundamental disparity between virtual and real-world skills that has important consequences for how we understand perception and action in the virtual world.

BACKGROUND: Advances in 3D technology mean that both robotic surgical devices and surgical simulators can now incorporate stereoscopic viewing capabilities. While depth information may benefit robotic surgical performance, it is unclear whether 3D viewing also aids skill acquisition when learning from observing others. As observational learning plays a major role in surgical skills training, this study aimed to evaluate whether 3D viewing provides learning benefits in a robotically assisted surgical task. METHODS: 90 medical students were assigned to either (1) 2D or (2) 3D observation of a consultant surgeon performing a training task on the daVinci S robotic system, or (3) a no observation control, in a randomised parallel design. Subsequent performance and instrument movement metrics were assessed immediately following observation and at one-week retention. RESULTS: Both 2D and 3D groups outperformed no observation controls following the observation intervention (ps 

Background: Cognitive training (CT) aims to develop a range of skills, like attention and decision-making, through targeted training of core cognitive functions. While CT can target context specific skills, like movement anticipation, much CT is domain general, focusing on core abilities (e.g. selective attention) for transfer to a range of real-world tasks, such as spotting opponents. Commercial CT (CCT) devices are highly appealing for athletes and coaches due to their ease of use and eye-catching marketing claims. The extent to which this training transfers to performance in the sporting arena is, however, unclear. Therefore, this paper sought to provide a systematic review of evidence for beneficial training effects of CCT devices and evaluate their application to sport. Methods: an extensive search of electronic databases (PubMed, PsychInfo, GoogleScholar, and SportDiscus) was conducted to identify peer-reviewed evidence of training interventions with commercially available CT devices. Forty-three studies met the inclusion criteria and were retained for quality assessment and synthesis of results. Seventeen studies assessed transfer effects beyond laboratory cognitive tests, but only 1 directly assessed transfer to a sporting task. Results: the review of evidence showed limited support for far transfer benefits from CCT devices to sporting tasks, mainly because studies did not target the sporting environment. Additionally, a number of methodological issues with the CCT literature were identified, including small sample sizes, lack of retention tests, and limited replication of findings by researchers independent of the commercial product. Therefore, evidence for sporting benefits is currently limited by the paucity of representative transfer tests and a focus on populations with health conditions. Conclusions: Currently there is little direct evidence that the use of CCT devices can transfer to benefits for sporting performance. This conclusion, however, stems more from a lack of experimental studies in the sporting field and a lack of experimental rigor, rather than convincing null effects. Subsequently, there is an opportunity for researchers to develop more reliable findings in this area through systematic assessment in athletic populations and major methodological improvements.

Background: Acquiring new motor skills to learn complex movements and master the use of a diverse range of instruments is fundamental for developing expertise in surgery. Although aspects of skill development occur through trial and error, watching the performance of another individual (action observation) is an increasingly important adjunct for the acquisition of these complex skills before performing a procedure. The aim of this review was to examine the evidence in support of the use of action observation in surgery. Methods: a narrative review of observational learning for surgical motor skills was undertaken. Searches of PubMed and PsycINFO databases were performed using the terms ‘observational learning’ OR ‘action observation’ AND ‘motor learning’ OR ‘skill learning’. Results: Factors such as the structure of physical practice, the skill level of the demonstrator and the use of feedback were all found to be important moderators of the effectiveness of observational learning. In particular, observation of both expert and novice performance, cueing attention to key features of the task, and watching the eye movements of expert surgeons were all found to enhance the effectiveness of observation. It was unclear, however, whether repeated observations were beneficial for skill learning. The evidence suggests that these methods can be employed to enhance surgical training curricula. Conclusion: Observational learning is an effective method for learning surgical skills. An improved understanding of observational learning may further inform the refinement and use of these methods in contemporary surgical training curricula.

This report was designed to investigate the role of effective attention control in flow states, by developing an experimental approach to the study of flow. A challenge-skill balance manipulation was applied to self-paced netball and basketball shooting tasks, with point of gaze recorded through mobile eye tracking. Quiet eye was used to index optimal control of visual attention. While the experimental manipulation was found to have no effect, quiet eye was associated with the experience of flow. Furthermore, mediation revealed an indirect effect of quiet eye on performance through flow experience. This study provides initial evidence that flow may be preceded by changes in visual attention, suggesting that further investigation of visual attention may elucidate the cognitive mechanisms behind flow experience.

The predominant characterization of flow in sport has emphasized athletes' reports of reduced conscious attention and effort; however, this is difficult to reconcile with other reports of superior focus and lack of distraction. The aim of this study was to explore this tension by testing novel, theoretically driven predictions for subjective and objective mental effort and by assessing visual attention control using an experimental research design. Specifically, we predicted that perceived and actual effortful attention might dissociate across 3 conditions of a simulated car-racing task designed to manipulate the level of flow: too easy, matched to skill (flow), and too difficult. Task absorption, objective mental effort, and focused gaze were all highest in the matched condition. However, objective performance, reported fluency, and mental effort demonstrated a linear relationship across conditions (participants performed worse and reported more effort and less fluency as difficulty increased). These results suggest a dichotomy between objective and reported effort and suggest that flow is underpinned by efficient attentional control.

While the experience of flow is often described in attentional terms—focused concentration or task absorption—specific cognitive mechanisms have received limited interest. We propose that an attentional explanation provides the best way to advance theoretical models and produce practical applications, as well as providing potential solutions to core issues such as how an objectively difficult task can be subjectively effortless. Recent research has begun to utilize brain-imaging techniques to investigate neurocognitive changes during flow, which enables attentional mechanisms to be understood in greater detail. Some tensions within flow research are discussed; including the dissociation between psychophysiological and experiential measures, and the equivocal neuroimaging findings supporting prominent accounts of hypofrontality. While flow has received only preliminary investigation from a neuroscientific perspective, findings already provide important insights into the crucial role played by higher-order attentional networks, and clear indications of reduced activity in brain regions linked to self-referential processing. The manner in which these processes may benefit sporting performance are discussed.

BACKGROUND: Observational learning plays an important role in surgical skills training, following the traditional model of learning from expertise. Recent findings have, however, highlighted the benefit of observing not only expert performance but also error-strewn performance. The aim of this study was to determine which model (novice vs. expert) would lead to the greatest benefits when learning robotically assisted surgical skills. METHODS: 120 medical students with no prior experience of robotically-assisted surgery completed a ring-carrying training task on three occasions; baseline, post-intervention and at one-week follow-up. The observation intervention consisted of a video model performing the ring-carrying task, with participants randomly assigned to view an expert model, a novice model, a mixed expert/novice model or no observation (control group). Participants were assessed for task performance and surgical instrument control. RESULTS: There were significant group differences post-intervention, with expert and novice observation groups outperforming the control group, but there were no clear group differences at a retention test one week later. There was no difference in performance between the expert-observing and error-observing groups. CONCLUSIONS: Similar benefits were found when observing the traditional expert model or the error-strewn model, suggesting that viewing poor performance may be as beneficial as viewing expertise in the early acquisition of robotic surgical skills. Further work is required to understand, then inform, the optimal curriculum design when utilising observational learning in surgical training.